URVEYIMG 



FORil 



EGIN 



''. '-'S 



SURVEYING 



FOR 



BEGINNERS 



J. B, DAVIS 

1895-1911 



SECOND EDITION 

REVISED AXD ENLARGED 



GEORGE WAHR, Publisher 

ANN ARBOR, MICHIGAN 
191 1 






Copyright 

BY GEORGE WAHR 

1911 



if''*' 






The Ann Arbor Press 



LIST OF WORK 



I. Reading Verniers. 

II. Measuring with Steel Tapes. 
Survey of a triangle. 
JNIeasuring the same distance eight times. 

III. Handling Instruments. 
Transit. Line Staff. 
Level. 
Leveling Rod. 

IV. Survey of a triangle with a transit. 

Twenty rod readings on the same B. M. 

V. Reading Angles. Closing the horizon. 
Peg Levels. Short circuit. 

YI. Intersections and Connections. 

VII. Passing Obstructions. 

VIII. Circular Curves with Steel Tapes. 

IX. Circular Curves with Steel Tapes and Transit. 

X. Traverse Survey. Field with seven sides. 
Peg Levels. Long circuit. 

XI. Traverse Survey. Computing and platting. 
Profile Leveling. 

XII. Profile and Grade Line. 

Staking out a grade. 

XIII. Straight Line. 

Staking out a building. 



OUTFIT. NOTICE. 



1. Outfit required. 

For each person : 

Reprints and pamphlets. 

Direction of a Line. Recommended. 

Leveling and Earthwork. 

Field Note Book, Like Sample. 

Lead Pencil, Faber, No. 5, red Hexagon. 

Eraser, typewriter, small. 

Cross ruled paper, for platting. 
For each party : 

Wire spikes, 6'\ 12 

Wire lath nails, 3d fine. }i lb. 

Boy's axe, sharp. 

Marking crayon. 



2, Notice. 

Once telling is enough. 

Parties consist of two, or four, persons, ordinarily. 

Time for each duty will be limited. 

Shortcomings to be made up outside of class time, and with- 
out delay. 

Do the work in the order in which it is listed. 

Every person must "Figure." 

Put all computations in field note book, with notes. 

No loose papers allowed. 

Do not come here with parts of the notes of a piece of work 
in different books. Every note book must contain them all. 

Present all records, maps, and drawings, until given a grade. 

Late comers make up all back work within three weeks, or 
drop out. 



OUTFIT, notice; 

Instruments, apparatus and tools, are issued on the check 
system. Each one gets five checks for which a charge of 
fifty cents is made. The money will be returned at the 
end of the semester upon the return of the checks. A check 
is left for each article issued. The checks are returned 
upon the return of the articles in the same condition as 
when issued. 

No playing with tools, or apparatus. 

Pay for all losses or breakages. 

Report at once, all losses, breakages, or defects, to have 
them made good in time for the next work. 

When a word, or a sign, is not understood, look it up then 
and there, in a dictionary, or text book, or inquire of a 
teacher at the next opportunity. 

We do not teach what may be read in a book, without aid. 

Learn how to do things by doing them, — same as baseball 
is learned. "Practice makes perfect." 

Recitations are the examination, except a written examina- 
tion upon the subjects of the field work. 

Review Plane Geometry and Plane Trigonometry. 

Surveying is learned by study, by work, and by practice, — 
not by merely staying 'round where surveyors, books, and 
instruments are. 

"It is better not to know so many things than it is to know 
so many things that are not so." 

"You can find eighteen men who can tell how to do a thing 
where you can find one who can do it." 

■ — Josli Billings. 



3. Not so. 



When you "See it," you know it. 

Something will prove useful which is written down carefully 
and specifically, with order, decorum, and diagrams, in a 
note-book, and then laid aside and forgotten. 

You can "laze" around at the beginning of the semester 
and make up for it by cramming towards the end. 



OUTFIT. NOTICE 7 

One can get along here, or elsewhere, as an engineer, without 
being able to write plainly, make neat figures, and use 
with facility, some style of plain lettering. 

A surveyor can "establish" a landmark or a boundary. 

A "true" meridan, — a "magnetic" meridan. 

The "declination" of the magnetic needle. 

"Printing" a statement in a book makes it true. 

4. An engineer should be able to 

Measure distance. 

Measure an angle. 

Keep notes. 

Run a traverse. 

Run a straight line. 

Take levels. 

Make computations. 

Make maps and drawings. 

Write a report. 

Take care of instruments. 

Use a needle compass, some. 

Lay out a curve. 

Oversee equipment. 

5. A survey consists of 

The field work. 

The field notes. 

The calculations. 

The permanent record. 

Unless what each of these items implies is completed in a 
thorough and workmanlike manner, the survey will be im- 
perfect, and usually inadequate. Such surveys commonly 
prove to be both unsatisfactory and expensive. 

6. The Field Work comprises many kinds of operations and 

labor. 

I. Running lines, straight or curved, and marking their lo- 
cation with stakes, or otherwise. 



OUTFIT. NOTICE 

2. Measuring distances, with a chain, tape, stadia, or other 
device. 

3. Finding the direction of a hne. 

4. Measuring angles, with a divided circle, a steel tape, or 
other means. 

5. Placing, and constructing, monuments, such as land- 
marks and station marks. 

6. Getting differences of elevation, or running levels, as it is 
called. 

7. Making bench marks for the levels. 

8. Digging for old landmarks. 

9. Sounding. 

10. Making borings for showing materials. 

11. Gauging of streams. 

12. Building stations for triangulation. 

13. Making astronomical observations. 

This list is not exhaustive, only illustrative. 

The Field Notes are made in the field. They are a plain, 
orderly, neat, and complete, record of the field work, and 
attendant conditions, circumstances, and facts, made ac- 
cording to the directions below. 

1. Mark name and number of party neatly and plainly, at 
top right hand side of first outside cover of note-book. 

2. Number leaves of note-book, if not numbered. 

3. Select a brief and comprehensive title. Enter this title 
at top of every new page to be used for notes. 

4. Enter the date on every page of notes, and at beginning 
of notes of each day's work. 

5. Note instruments used, and any special tools, or appa- 
ratus, on each leaf of note book. 

6. Record the place where work is done. 

7. Write an explanation of the object of the work, if not 
apparent from the title or the notes themselves. 

8. Write the name, position, and duty, of every person who 
does any part of the field work. 



OUTFIT, notice; 9 

9. ]\Iake a plain, full, complete, orderly, and unmistakable, 
record of ever_y thing done, every fact ascertained, and 
the evidence and witnesses therefor. Record what is 
seen, without alteration, computation, or modification. 
Set down every act, or fact, at once. Trust nothing 
whatever to memory. 

10. At the bottom of each page of notes place the signature 
of the recorder, — also at the end of the record of each 
day's work. 

11. When the notes of any work are in different parts of 
the book, write, at the beginning of the record at every 
place in the book, a reference to the place where the pre- 
ceding notes ended, and at the end of every record a 
note of the place where the record is continued. The 
same applies to records contained in different books. 

12. When the note-book is filled, enter a _^ title on the outside 
of the front cover, with the dates of beginning and end- 
the records therein. 

13. 3ilake, and enter, an index in the book, if needed. 

8. The Calculations are generally made in the office, though 
many minor ones are made in the field, especially in land 
and railroad surveying and in staking out works. When 
made in the field they should be spread on the pages of 
the field note-book in an orderly manner, as part of the 
field notes. In any case, if the calculations are relatively 
brief, they should be entered in the field note book imme- 
diately following, or, by cross references, immediately in 
connection with, the field records and the results made a 
part of those records. ]\iore extensive and elaborate cal- 
culations require a system adapted to the work, but, in 
general, the figures and results should be carefully pre- 
served in a well kept record. AVhat is known in the trade 
as the Standard Figuring Book may be useful. The page 
is 9" X 12" cross ruled in ^4" squares. The calculations 
must be completed in order to obtain the results and fulfill 
the purposes for which the survey was made. 



10 OUTFIT. NOTICI': 

9. The Permanent Record preserves the results of the previ- 

ous labors as well as completes the survey. It may consist 
of only a field note book, suitably reviewed, indexed and 
marked ; or there may be elaborate reports accompanied 
by fine maps, with detailed plans, and estimates. It all 
depends upon the kind, extent, and purpose of the survey. 

Here should be read Appendix "G" of Johnson's Surveying, 
this being Professor Raymond's paper on what consti- 
tutes a survey. 

10. Maps and Plats should contain 

1. Map, or plat, properly drawn and lettered, — not a scrawl, 
or fragment. 

2. Border. 

3. Title. 

4. Scale. A linear scale, if to be reproduced. 

5. Direction mark. Meridian and azimuth. 

6. Explanations, if needed. 

7. Party who made the survey. 

8. Draftsman's name. 

9. Dates. Of Survey. Of map. 

10. Designations of stations, land marks, and notable points 
of survey. 

11. Line of reference. 

12. Dimensions. All in one unit ordinarily. Distances. 
Depths. Sizes. Elevations. 

13. Angles. Azimuths. Bearings. 

14. Names of objects. Such are, rivers, streets, places, land 
owners, buildings. 

15. Sketches. Illustrations. 

16. Results. Such are, areas, amounts, quantities, volumes. 

17. Authority for making. Often may be part of title. 

18. Location; including state, or country; district or county; 
township, village or city ; and name of locality ; any, or 
all, of these, or similar terms, that may be necessary to 
designate unmistakably the position of the survey on 
the ground. Often may be included in sub title. 



OUTFIT. NOTICE II 

19 If on more than one sheet, put on each the whole num- 
ber of sheets and its own number, thus, — ....sheets. 
Sheet No 

The sheets should be made to be read from the bottom and 
right hand side. 

A standard size for sheets should be used on any survey of 
considerable extent wherever it is practicable to employ 
such. 

Things shown should be given proper relative prominence, — 
not one of them, as the title, or draftsman's name, over- 
shadowing all the rest. This is the primary requisite of 
good map making. Consult; good atlases, such as the 
Century Atlas; U. S. Charts; Reports of U. S. Coast and 
Geodetic Survey; Maps of U. S. Geological Survey; pub- 
lished drawings; and books for the guidance of- drafts- 
men. Note the breadths of lines used, and measure, and 
compare, the heights of letters. 

]\Iaps and plats should plainly show : 
I. What they were made for. 



What they represent. 

Where the things represented are. 

When they were made. 

Where they were made. 

Who they were made by. 

What the authority was for making them, if made by 

the order of some official, under any Act of Congress, 

statute, ordinance, or order of court. 



11. Reports should follow the same general lines as the field 
notes and maps. Consult the reports of notable surveys, 
such as that of the Deep Water Ways Commission, or the 
reports of individual engineers of standing relative to pro- 
posed works, as that of ]\Ir. Joseph Ripley, U. S. Ass't 
Eng'r on the connection of Birmingham, Ala., with the 
Black Warrior River, by canal, which may be found in the 
Reports of the Chief of Engineers U. S. A. 



I. READING VERNIERS. 



INFORMATION. 



12. A vernier, in general, is a device for indicating certain frac- 

tional parts of one of the equal spaces, or divisions 
of a graduated line. The graduated line may be straight, 
as on a scale, or leveling rod, or it may be curved, as on 
the plate of a transit. The vernier itself is a short scale 
of equal parts, straight or curved to fit the graduated line 
to which it applies. 

See what is the value of a space on the scale, or circle, to 
which the vernier applies. 

Place the vernier so two marks on it match, or are in exact 
line with, two marks on the scale or circle. Count the 
spaces on the vernier between these two marks. 

Divide the value of a space on the scale, or circle, by this 
number. 

The quotient will be the least reading of the vernier. 

13. To read a vernier, see where the zero line, or index, of the 

vernier points. If this index, or line, matches a line on 
the scale, or circle, that line on the scale, or circle, will 
show the reading of the circle, or scale, at once, without 
the aid of the vernier. If the index of the vernier does 
not match a line on the scale, or circle, look along the scale, 
or circle, in the direction in which the reading is to be 
taken, and note the reading of the scale, or circle, shown 
by the line next preceding the index of the vernier. Look 
along the vernier and find a line on it which matches a 
line on the scale, or circle. Note the number of divisions 
of the vernier between this line and its index or zero line. 
Multiply this number by the least reading of the vernier 
to get that part of the whole reading which is given by 
the vernier. This multiplication is commonly done un- 



I. READING VERNIERS I3 

consciously by means of the mechanical aids supplied for 
reading the vernier. Add, or annex, the vernier reading 
to the scale, or circle, reading, previously noted, to get the 
full reading, up to the index of the vernier. 

When looking for the mark on the vernier which matches 
a mark on the scale, or circle, observe one or two marks 
on the vernier each way from the one supposed to match 
with a mark on the scale, or circle. These marks should 
mismatch the marks on the scale, or circle, equal amounts, 
in opposite directions, when at equal distances from the 
mark which is supposed to match precisely. Thus make 
sure which mark on the vernier it is that really matches 
precisely with a mark on the scale, or circle. When no 
mark on the vernier really matches precisely with a mark 
on the scale, or circle, the actual reading of the vernier 
may be obtained to one-half, or even one-third, of its 
least reading, by observing the marks on the vernier in 
the manner described. 

Useful ways of applying and reading verniers are to be 
learned by experience. 

I. READING VERNIERS. 

PRACTICE. 

Directions. 

Ascertain and record the least reading of each vernier. 

Take and properly record twenty full readings of each. 

See Sec. 50 for samples of vernier readings. 

Total number of all vernier readings is 180. 

Should be taken up in the order in which they are named. 

Leveling Rods. 

Boston. New York. Troy. Philadelphia. 
Short rod and long rod, — ten readings of each. 
Railroad Compass, or Transits 1884, or 1885, or the like. 
Transit 1382, or 1383. or 1384, or the like. 

Plate. \"ertical Circle. 
Transit 4838, or the like. 

Plate. \"ertical Circle. 



II. MEASURING WITH STEEL TAPES. 



INFORMATION. 

15. A steel tape measuring set includes the articles named 
below : 

A one hundred feet steel tape, with but a few marks on it, 
and its reel. 

Two handles for the one hundred feet steel tape, — split sticks, 
■^" long, will do. 

A fifty feet steel tape, divided to hundredths of a foot, in 
its case. 

Two brass i lb. plumb bobs, with strings. 

Eleven 6'' wire spikes. 

An axe. 

Line staves may be needed for ranging lines. 

Find where the end marks for distance are on both tapes. 
This must be done before correct measurement can be 
made. The ends of the lOO ft. tape often do not indicate 
its length, there being an extra 1.^25 to 1.^50 of steel rib- 
bon at each end. The zero of the 50 ft. tape may be found 
by turning the end of the tape back; matching the i ft. 
mark to some other foot mark on the tape ; smoothing out 
the loose end beside the tape; and noticing on it, exactly 
where the next foot mark fits, at, or near, the free end. 

Keep the steel tapes wound up, — as much of the time as 
possible, and get the work done. 

Wind any steel tape so the figures are within the coils, and 
with the zero at the free end. 

The zero end of a tape goes ahead, when measuring. 

The 100 ft. tape is taken off of its reel and a handle slipped 
on each end of it when marking a tape length. The han- 
dle at the forward, or zero end, should not slip off from 
the tape of itself. The handle at the rear, or 100 ft., end, 
should slip off very easily, because it should be taken off 
when the tape is drawn forward. 



II. MEASURING WITH STEKlv TAPES 1 5 

If the loo ft. tape has been mended, test the spaces between 
the marks on it by comparison with a standard, or with 
corresponding spaces marked by small wire nails in stakes 
driven in the ground till firm, and having their tops all at 
nearly the same elevation. The spaces between the wire 
nails may be laid off with the 50 ft. tape. 

Make a table of the correct total distances from the zero of 
the 100 ft. tape to each of the marks on it. Use this table 
in recording" measurements with this 100 ft. tape. 

Two men make the measurements, one at each end of the 
tape. ■ 

Call the one at the zero end the Leader, as he goes ahead, 
and the other the Follower. 

The follower is responsible for the correctness of all meas- 
urements. 

The leader must watch and aid in every way he can to make 
correct measurements. Errors are not tolerated. 

In following a line both should keep the line by referring 
its range to some object beyond the other. While meas- 
uring, both should be on the watch for other objects on 
the range of the line, as usually, owing to the lay of the 
ground, the same object cannot be used to range by for 
any considerable distance. Both men should know the 
exaci: range of the line at all times, if possible. When 
starting, the follower puts the leader exactly in line, where- 
upon the leader selects an object on the range and beyond 
the place the measurement starts from. As they move 
forward the follower ordinarily directs the leader on to 
the line as each tape length is marked, but the leader should 
carefully observe whether, by his own marks, he is on the 
line, or not. 

Before beginning a measurement, the follower counts the 
spikes, and lays one beside the mark from which the meas- 
urement is to proceed. He hands the others to the leader 
and says "Ten !" The leader counts them and says "Ten !" 
In this way they make sure of starting with the right num- 
ber of spikes, and with ten of them in the hands of the 
leader. 



l6 II. MEASURING WITH STEEL TAPES 

Draw out the tape the full length with the zero end ahead, 
and about on line. 

Leader take the zero end in hand, and put on his handle. 

Follower slip his handle on the lOO ft. end, and bring the 
100 ft. mark about to the mark to be measured from. 

Follower directs leader accurately into line, and shows the 
leader the mark from which the measurement is to proceed. 

Leader takes the range of the line carefully, and finds some 
object, if possible, on the range beyond the follower. If 
such an object cannot be found leave a picket just back of 
the mark to be measured from, set exactly on the range 
of the line. A picket may be a stick of suitable length. 

Leader draws up the tape ready to measure. 

Follower holds lOO ft. mark exactly to the ma"rk to be meas- 
ured from, and directs the leader to hold the zero end of 
the tape exactly in line. 

Leader pulls 15 or 20 ibs. on the tape, 
t Follower looks once more at the 100 ft. mark on the tape 
and sees that it is exactly at the mark to be measured 
from and that the zero end of the tape is on line. 

When both men are satisfied that the conditions are favor- 
able for a trustworthy measurement, — that is, both are 
"Ready,''- — the follower says "Ready," "Right," "All right 
here," "Mark," or any useful form of words. 

Leader marks the place on the ground even with the zero 
mark on the tape, being careful not to release the tension, 
and to keep exactly in line. The mark may be the center 
of a spike stuck into the ground so as to stand firm, a 
scratch with the point of a spike, the point of a spike, 
carefully placed, or any other suitable mark. 

Leader leave a spike at this mark. 

Test the measurement by one or more trials after the mark 

at the zero end of the tape is made, until satisfied that the 
mark is correct for both distance and line. 

Follower slips off his handle quickly, letting go the rear end 
of the tape, and picks up the spike at the mark from which 
the measurement proceeds. 



II. MEASURING WITH STEEL TAPES 17 

Leader draws the tape forward 100 ft. on the hne. 

Follower advances to the spike left by the leader where he 
arrives about the time 90 ft. of the tape have passed the 
spike. He picks up the tape, lets it run through his hands 
till the 100 ft. end is almost in hand, when he calls "Hold," 
or "Halt," to the leader, and quickly slips on his handle. 

Leader stops, and the tape is placed about on line. 

Follower holds the lOO ft. mark to the spike and the oper- 
ations for marking the first tape length are repeated till 
both are satisfied the work is correct. 

Follower slips off his handle, takes up the spike where he is, 
and they proceed as before. 

Thus continue until the leader has put down five spikes. 
While going forward to place the sixth spike the follower 
counts the spikes he has and calls "Five" to the leader, 
who counts those he has and answers "Five." They thus 
verify the courlt without delay. Leave a mark in place of 
the fifth spike. 

Unless each has "Five," review the work and correct the 
errors. 

Continue the measurement as before until the leader has put 
down his last spike. He calls "Out" to the follower, and 
stands by the last spike. 

Follower slips off his handle, takes up the spike where he is, 
and goes forward, counting the spikes he has. He hands 
them to the leader and says "Ten." 

Leader counts the spikes given him and says "Ten." 

Here the count is verified and any errors found must be 
corrected, for this purpose the mark left in place of the 
fifth spike will make it necessary to remeasure but five 
tape lengths instead of ten, or more. 

The eleventh spike keeps the measurement while the spikes 

change hands, the count is verified, and errors found and 
corrected. The measurement proceeds from the eleventh 
spike and the follower takes it up only after the spike next 
beyond it is set, — the same as he took up the spike at the 
starting mark. 

Record the "Tally" of ten tape lengths. 



l8 II. MEASURING WITH STEEL TAPES 

So continue until a spike is set less than 50 ft. from the mark 
the measurement proceeds to. This spike may come before 
reaching that mark or beyond it. 

Follower slip off his handle, take up the spike where he 
is, count the spikes he then has, and call the number, — 
as "Three," — tC' the leader. 

Leader count the spikes he has and answer with the num- 
ber, — as "Seven." 

Each retain the spikes he has and leave the one last set in 
the ground. 

The sum of the numbers each has must, be ten. If not, re- 
view the work and correct the errors. 

The spikes the follower has show the number of tape lengths 
the last spike set is past tally mark, or from the place 
where the measurement began if less than ten tape lengths 
away. 

Measure from the spike last set to the ifiark the measurement 
proceeds to, using the 50 ft. tape. Leader take the zero 
end of it and follower read the tape. Wind up this tape. 

Record the total number of tape lengths, or hundreds of 
feet, as shown by the number of tallies passed and the 
number of spikes the follower has. 

Record the measurement made with the 50 ft. tape. 

Add the latter to the former, or subtract it therefrom, on 
the page of the note book, and make a record of the dis- 
tance between the two marks the measurement was made 
to obtain. 

Follower take up the eleventh spike. 

Follower take all the spikes, count them, place one at the 
mark measured to, give the others to the leader and say 
"Ten." 

Both must agree as to the count. 

Proceed with the measurement of the next line as the first 
was measured. 

Thus continue the work, at will. 

Stand at the side of a steel tape to get distance, to read the 
tape, or to hold a mark on it even with another mark. 

Stand on, or look along, a line, to give, or get, line. 



II. MEASURING WITH STEElv TArES I9 

16. Ail measurements m.ust be level. Hold the two ends of 

the tape at the same elevation. Use the plumb bob to 
mark the point on 'the ground even with the mark on the 
tape. ^Measure down sloping ground if the descent is more 
then two per cent, on the best work. If the slope is too 
steep for the eas}' use of the whole tape, use it by parts, 
as directed below. Where there are several slopes along 
a line, descending in opposite directions, begin at the top 
of each and let the separate measurements meet in the de- 
pressions, or valleys between. 

17. In measuring dovi^n a slope, draw out the whole tape along 

the line as if on level ground. Leader raise up the tape 
and, by direction of the follower lay it as nearly as may 
be exactly on the line. Hold the 100 ft. mark at the mark 
where the measurement begins, as before directed. Leader 
pick up the tape at any convenient place, where it will not 
be dithcult to hold that place up at the same elevation as 
the 100 ft. mark. This place may nc't be at a mark on 
the tape, but it is better to use a regular mark on the tape 
if practicable. 

Leader take his stand beside the tape so the hand and arm 
used to draw the tape taut will pass across the front of his 
body, in an easy and comfortable position, steadying him- 
self by pulling the tape taut, and leaving his other hand 
and arm free to handle the plumb bob and string. The 
follower can easily hold against the pull of the leader, as 
he will be holding the 100 ft. mark at, or near, the ground. 
The leader will be out of line when beside the tape. 

Leader hold the bob string at the exact point, or mark, on 
the tape to be used in this piece measurement. AMth this 
place, or mark, held at the proper elevation and on line, 
let the bob run down nearly to the ground and find where 
the mark to be made on the ground will come. Clear off 
the round. Smooth the surface, if need be. Hold the 
place on the tape from which the bob string hangs, at dif- 
ferent heights, and, by trial, find the height at which the 
piece of tape being used will mark the longest distance 



20 II. KASURING WITH STEEI, TAPIRS 

on the ground. Nip the string tightly to the tape to show 
how much string to use. 

Follower direct the leader to hold the bob exactly on line, — 
the place where the string is being at the proper height, 
found as above directed. 

When both men are satisfied the conditions are favorable for 
a trustworthy measurement, — the tape being at a suitable 
tension and the plumb bob hanging steady and almost to 
the ground, — the leader lower his hands slightly, without 
releasing any of the tension, till the point of the bob 
touches the ground. Leader says "Right," carefully nip- 
ping the bob string at the exact place on the tape. Fol- 
lower let his end of the tape move forward to give the 
leader some slack. Leader mark the place on the ground 
where the point of the bob touched. 

Verify this mark by further trials, made with care, until 
both are satisfied the mark on the ground is correct for 
line and distance. 

Follower slip ofl; his handle, pick up the spike, where he 
is, and advance to the leader. 

Leader deliver into the hand of the follower the exact place, 
or mark, on the tape where the bob string is. This may be 
done by the follower placing his thumb nail from the lOO 
ft. side against the thumb nail of the leader from the zero 
side, and nipping the tape securely, where no regular 
mark was used. 

Follower hold this exact place, or mark, to the mark made 
beneath it on the ground. 

Leader take up any other succeeding convenient part of the 
tape and measure it off on the ground with the same care, 
precautions, and tests, as before, for both line and distance. 

Follower advance to leader. 

Leader deliver his place, or mark, to follower. 

Continue these piece measurements on out to the zero of 

the tape. 
Here leave a spike as usual. 



II. MEASURING WITH STE;e;i, TAPE;S 21 

Keep the marks on the ground in any convenient way. If 
spikes must be used, let the leader take one from the fol- 
lower for every one he puts down between the loo ft. and 
zero marks of the tape, at the time he delivers to the fol- 
lower the intermediate places, or marks, he uses. An- 
other size of nails may be used to mark with between the 
ends of the tape length. 

Both men count the spikes they have at the end of every 
tape length where the measuring is difficult and see that 
each has his proper number, — ^both together having ten. 

Continue the measurement at will. 

By the method above outlined, a tape length is laid ofif with- 
out any adding of pieces. The tape does the adding and 
will make no mistakes. It is better to use maks on the 
tape, if practicable, to designate the piece measurements, 
as they are less liable to be lost sight of, and can be easily 
recovered if such is the case. 

Be especially particular to keep these short parts of the tape 
on the line. Slight linear deviations give larger errors on 
short measures than on the whole tape length. It is much 
more difficult to keep the line on rough ground. 

Ground may be so steep, rough, and covered with obstruc- 
tions, — rocks, logs, rubbish, hillocks, — that the measure- 
ment must be made with a board not over ten feet long, 
having straight parallel edges and marked with feet and 
half feet marks. The ground marks must be kept on 
stakes. The board must be kept level with a carpenter's 
level, or some similar device, — bubble tubes may be set in 
the edge of the board itself, and adjusted by reversion on 
two stakes driven in the ground. The line must be kept 
by a transit, at, or beyond, the foot of the slope, the meas- 
uring proceeding towards the transit. The mark on the 
lower stake may be made by a heavy, 4 or 5 lbs., plumb 
bob with a carefully adjusted point, — a millwright's bob 
might do, — or an accurate plumb rule used. There must 
be no wind. The piece measurement must be recorded 
as made, at their actual value, and added. If stakes must 
be set at equal intervals they must be placed by adding the 
proper piece measurements at the right places. 



22 II. MEASURING WITH STEElv TAPES 



Measuring up a slope is similarly clone. On the better 
class of work, avoid it, as it is especially liable to error. 
Only men of much experience should attempt it. 



II. MEASURING WITH STEEL TAPES. 



ElELDWORK. 

19. Measuring set. 

One hundred feet steel tape and reel. 

Handles for same. 

Fifty feet steel tape in its case. 

Plumb bobs, with lines, — two. 

Six-inch wire spikes, — eleven. 

Axe. Stakes, — four. 
Line staves may be needed for ranging lines. 
Examine the articles as issued, or be liable for defects found 

upon their return. 

20. Inspection of Plumb Bobs. 

Look for the string, 
the point, 
the cap, 
dents, and 
evidences of abuse. 

21. Inspection of Steel Tapes, — 50 ft., or short tapes. 

Unwind the tape. 

See if the tape is wound wrong side in. 
See if the reel works right. 
Look for the box, 

tape loose from reel, 

breaks, splits, cracks, or kinks, in tape, 

dirt, 

moisture, 

rust. 



II. MEAS^RI^'G WITH STEEL TAPES 23 

screw holding reel in box, 
reel handle, 
knob on reel handle, 
dents, or bends, in box, and 
evidences of abuse. 

22. Inspection of Steel Tapes, — 100 ft., or long tapes. 

Unwind the tape. 

See if the tape is wound wrong side in. 
See if the reel works right. 
Look for the reel, 

breaks, splits, cracks, or kinks, in tape. 

dirt, 

moisture, 

rust, 

numbers on tape, 

tape handles, 

reel handle. 

parts of reel, 

dents, or bends, in reel, and 

evidences of abuse. 

23. Inspection of Line Staves. 

Look for bends, 
scratches, 

damaged points, and 
evidences of abuse. 

24. Reminders. 

If the 100 ft. tape has been mended, test tlie spaces marked 

on it. 
Keep the tapes wound up, — figures inside. 
The zero end of a tape goes ahead. 
Count the spikes as directed. 

A'erify the count between the fifth and sixth spikes. 
The spikes the follower has show the distance past the last 

tallv mark. 



24 II. MEASURING WITH STKEL TAPlvS 

Verify the count at the last spike set. 
Do not pull up the last spike till the record is made. 
Record the number of even hundreds of feet. 
Record the distance measured with the fifty feet tape. 

25, Survey of a triangle, about 450 by 250 feet. 

B ^2— (^ + n) (c-~n) 

a ^ , 

_, [a -]- i)i) (a — in) 




Area = 1/5 (5 — a) {s — b) (s—c) 
5 = H«+^+^). 



26. Instructions. 

On rough ground mark a triangle with small stakes, A, B, 
C, so that A C is, by estimation, about 450 feet, and B is, 
by estimation, about 250 feet away from A C. Set D 
anywhere in A C. Be particular to place D exactly on 
A C. Use a plumb line to range with. 

Witness A, B, C, and D, following the form below. 

OA. A nail in a stake driven flush with the ground, stand- 
ing on the third prominent ridge N. of the Detroit Ob- 
servatory, Ann Arbor, Mich., from which a 
Witnesses. Hickory, 12" in diameter, bears N. about 55° 
E. 72.^3 to its center, and a 

B. Walnut 27" bears S. about 35° E., 261/4. to cen. 

Spike in root of Sycamore 32", S. about 45° W., 47.^13. 

Spike, E. face of brick wall near S. E., corner of barn, N.W'ly 
34/27. 

Measure A B, B C, C D, D A, and B D. Find the value of 
d from the above equation. Subtract it from B D, meas- 
ured, and show the error -\- or — . Compute the area in 
square feet. Reduce this to acres. Make a neat plat of 
the triangle to scale, on the cross ruled page of the field 
note book. Record all of these matters in the field note 
book. 



II. MEASURING WITH STEEL TAPES 25 

27. Measure the distance, eight times, between two marks 
about 1000 feet apart. The cement walk on tlie east side 
of the campus is about 1000 feet long. 

Drive two stakes, by estimation, about 1000 feet apart, on a 
smooth piece of ground. Tops of stakes flush with sur- 
face of ground. Drive a nail in each stake. Witness each 
stake. Set up a line staff about two feet beyond each 
stake, on the line of stakes, and standing plumb. 

]^Ieasure the distance carefully between the two nails. Re- 
turn, measuring the distance carefully, with the same per- 
son for leader. 

Change positions, the person acting as follower taking the 
lead. 

Repeat the measurement, out and back, with the new leader 

Change positions. 

Repeat the measurement out and back. 

Change positions. 

Repeat the measurement out and back. 

Record the measurements as they are made, showing in the 
book who is leader and who is follower for each one. 

Add the eight measurements. Divide by 8 to find the aver- 
age measurement. 

Subtract each measurement from the average measurement 
and write the difference, with its sign, opposite each meas- 
urement, forming a column of "Errors."' 

Add the errors. See if the sum equals zero. If not, review 
the calculations and correct the figures. 

Record all these matters in the field note book. 



III. HANDLING INSTRUMENTS. 

INFORMATION. 

28. Transit. 

Observe with certainty how.it is packed in its box, so it can 
be properly returned to its place. Do not unpack it and 
take it from its box until sure it can be put back precisely 
as found. 

Kxamine the tripod. See that no parts are missing. See 
that all the shoes on the free end of the legs are tight. 
See that the wing nuts that clamp the legs tO' the top cast- 
ing all have washers, and will clamp the legs firmly to the 
casting. If a tripod is set up to receive an instrument for 
use in making observations, the legs, will be properly 
clamped by the wing nuts, in most cases, when they are 
tight enough so as to just be held in position at the usual 
slope, without dropping, if the tripod is raised, by its top, 
off the ground. In a windy time, they may be clamped 
tighter to steady the instrument. See that the screw on 
the neck of the top casting is in good order. The tripod 
being in order set it up on the ground, to receive the tran- 
sit when unpacked. 

Many common transits are screwed on tC' a board which 
slides into the transit box with the transit on it. Lift the 
transit by its base, or its plates, not by its standards, transit 
axis, or telescope. Set the board in a secure place, — on 
top of the box will often do, but do not let go of the transit 
in such a place. Release the spindle clamp. Start the 
screw that connects the transit to the board. Hold the 
transit with one hand to keep it from falling, and with the 
other on the leveling screws, unscrew the transit from the 
board by turning the base to the left. In this manner sep- 
arate the transit from the board without danger of it re- 
ceiving a fall. 

In the manner described, or any other method, adapted to 
the way the transit is packed, take it from the box. 



III. HANDI^IXG INSTRUMENTS 2/ 

Release the spindle clamp. Release the transit axis clamp. 
See that the plumb boh chain hangs central and free from 
beneath the base plate. 

Place the transit on its tripod. With one hand hold of the 
side of the transit to keep it from falling, and with the 
other hold of the leveling screws so as to turn the base, 
screw the base on the tripod. At the last take hold of 
the base with both hands and make sure the transit is 
screwed down firmly. If the screw thread in the base 
plate of the transit does not engage readily with the thread 
on the tripod, steady the instrument with both hands so 
the screws bear fair and turn the transit slowly and care- 
fully to the left till the screws drop together. Turn to the 
right and screw on the instrument. 

Take ofi^ the cap to the objective of the telescope. Put on 
the shade. Put the cap in the box where the shade was. 

Take the reading glass. Put it in a pocket handy to reach 
and where it cannot get lost. Some good instrument men 
tie the reading glass about their necks with a strong string, 
like a watch. 

Take the plumb bob. Tie it on to the chain with a sliding 
horse knot, tied with a bow, so the bob can easily, and 
quickly, be set at any required height. 

Put the board in the box. Close and fasten it. Set it away 
in its place. 

Turn the telescope straight up and clamp slightly. 

Release the spindle clamp if not released. 

Put the plumb bob in a pocket. 

Take hold of the tripod by two of its legs, — one in each 
hand, — with the third leg towards one side of the body. 
Lift the instrument and draw the legs together with one 
motion, raising and inclining it to rest, nearly balanced, 
on the shoulder. Let go of the leg in the hand that is on 
the same side of the body as the shoulder on which the 
transit rests, holding the instrument securely with the oth- 
er. Pass the free hand between the two free legs and 
grasp the one the other hand holds, releasing that hand. 
By so doing the instrument always, will be held securely. 



28 III. HANDLING INSTRUMENTS 

29. Setting up Transit. Making a Pointing. 

Take the instrument to the work. 

To set the transit down, grasp two tripod legs, — one in each 
hand, — holding one vertical, and steadying the instrument 
with the other. 

Set the vertical one in its place on the ground, if the transit 
is to be set up over a mark, — as a nail in a stake. 

Grasp the other two legs, — one in each hand, — and spread 
them out to such a position that the base plate, on which 
the leveling screws stand, appears to be level when these 
legs also stand on the ground. The tripod legs should be 
spread apart far enough so the transit will not only be in 
no danger of an upset, but so it will stand steady while ob- 
serving with it. 

Take the plumb bob from the pocket and let it hang beneath 
the transit. 

If the transit does not stand over the mark on the ground 
it is to be set up over, lift it by the tripod, bodily, and 
move it so it will. 

Force the tripod legs into the ground, or spread them apart, 
or place their feet, so the plumb bob hangs nearly over 
the mark, and the tripod will stand firm. Instruments are 
often set up too insecurely to permit of good work being 
done with them. On a hard surface like rock, or a street 
pavement, the shoes on the feet of the tripod must be 
tight or the tripod will wobble on them. Besides they must 
be set where there is no danger that they will slip. 

Release the wing nuts at the tops of the tripod legs. Tighten 
them again. 

Release all the leveling screws, or other device, that per- 
mits the use of the shifting center. Shift the transit on 
its base plate, or shifting center, till the point of the plumb 
bob hangs exactly to the mark over which the transit is 
being set up. 

Release the clamp to the transit axis. 

Release the clamp to the spindle axis, if not already released. 

Release all the leveling screws, if not released. 



in. IIAXDLIXG INSTRUMENTS 29 

Turn the transit on its spindle, by taking hold of the edge of 
the plate, or the feet of the standards (not the telescope), 
so the bubble tubes will stand parallel to opposite leveling 
screws. 

Operate the leveling screws parallel to the transit axis till 
the bubble tube they control reads level, leaving the screws 
loose. 

Operate the other pair of leveling screws till the bubble tube 
they control reads level, leaving them a little tight. 

Operate the first pair again till the bubble tube they control 
reads level, leaving them a bit tighter. 

Operate the other pair again as before, leaving them tighter. 

Operate the first pair again as before, leaving them tighter. 

A few touches more and both levels should read level, and 
the leveling screws be bearing firmly enough so the transit 
will not turn on the base plate. They must be considerably 
tighter when there is much wind. 

See if the point of the plumb bob hangs exactly to the mark. 
If not release the leveling screws, center the transit care- 
fully, and level again. The transit is now "Set up." 

Turn the transit on its spindle by taking hold of the edge of 
the plates or the feet of the standards, not the telescope, 
or the tops of the standards. 

To turn the telescope on the transit axis take hold of the eye- 
piece end of the body tube, not the eyepiece itself. To 
reverse the telescope turn the eye end down, take hold of 
the body tube above the transit axis, not the shade, and 
complete the reversion. 

The leveling screws should always turn with the same re- 
sistance, and smoothly, if the instrument is leveled as di- 
rected. If this is not the case, clean them, and the hollow 
screws they work in. When the instrument is leveled the 
leveling screws should be bearing evenly and firmly, — all 
alike in every respect. 

Place the tripod on the ground, if practicable, so the instru- 
ment man will stand between the feet of two of the tripod 
legs, ordinarily, while at work, and not astride of one of 
them. 



30 III. HANDI^ING INSTRUMENTS 

To direct the telescope toward an object, release the spindle 
clamp and the transit axis clamp, if both are not released, 
turn the transit on the spindle with one hand to the edge 
of the plate, and turn the telescope with the other hand 
to the eyepiece end of the body tube, until when looking 
over or under, the telescope it appears to be pointed in the 
right direction. 

To find the cross wires, first release the clamps tO' the transit 
axis and spindle. 

Open the peep hole to the eyepiece. 

Direct the telescope to the sky or a light colored object. 

Look through the telescope. 

Operate the device for moving the eyepiece until the cross 
wires appear clear, distinct, black lines across the field of 
view. Make them appear as sharp and well defined as 
possible. 

To focus the objective direct the telescope to look at any ob- 
ject. 

Look through the telescope. 

Bring the object into the field of view by some slight move- 
ments of the transit, if needed. 

Move the focussing ratchet to the objective until the object 
appears as clear, sharp and distinct, as it is possible to 
make it. 

Move the head slightly but still be able to look through the 
telescope. 

See if the cross wires appear to slip about on the object, 
and it should not be possible to change their relative posi- 
tion by the motion of the head. The view of either the 
object, or cross wires, or both, may not be quite so per- 
fectly distinct and clear as before these final changes in 
the setting of the objective, or eyepiece, but should be, 

When the objective and eyepiece are both properly focused 
the cross wires should appear to be painted on the obiect, 
and is should not be possible to change their relative posi- 
tion by any motion of the head. The view of either the 
object, or cross wires, or both, may not be quite so per- 
fectly distinct and clear as before these final changes in 
the setting of the objective, or eyepiece, but should be. 



I 



III. HANDLING INSTRUMENTS 3 1 

After the telescope is in proper focus, clamp the spindle and 

plate. 
By means of the slow motion screw to the spindle, make the 

vertical cross wire cover, or bisect, the object, or mark, 

sighted to. 
This is "Making a pointing." 
If the plate must be set at any given reading for a designated 

pointing, do this by the plate clamp and slow motion screw, 

before making the pointing. 
Alake the pointing by means of the spindle clamp and slow 

motion screw as above. 
Read the plate verniers. See if the readings are correct. If 

so, the pointing is finished. If not, repeat the work till 

they are. 

30. Line Staves. Pickets. Sight Marks. 

Line staves are used in transit work. A common one is 
made of Yz" wrought iron pipe, one end closed, the other 
steel pointed, about 7 feet long, painted white, with the 
second, fourth, and sixth foot from the top, or closed end, 
painted red, or black. A line staff should be straight, true, 
and the point exactly in the axis of the body of the rod. 
Set the point of the rod on a board. Twirl it in a vertical 
position. It should revolve true and not wobble. Watch 
it at the place where the steel point is welded on. This 
makes a practical staff for general use. On some city and 
bridge work a ^" solid steel rod, about five feet long, 
turned true and its point centered in a lathe, painted the 
same as the pipe, is found to be very satisfactory. 

The line staff is held on a point, or mark, from which line 
is to be taken, or to which an observation is to be made, 
and used as a mark to sight to. It is also used to find 
where any line comes by being set in line by the transit. 

To hold a line staff, stand squarely behind it as viewed from 
the instrument; face the instrument; settle the body firm- 
ly on the legs with the feet apart, alike on both sides ; let 
the staff pass centrally along the body from the nose down, 
the person having a sense that the body is plumb ; and 



32 III. HANDUNG INSTRUMENTS 

hold the staff with both hands brought together at the 
same place on it, the ends of the fingers and thumbs em- 
bracing it, and with the elbows extended alike on both 
sides. Practice this in calm weather, and there will be less 
trouble in holding the staff plumb when the wind blows. 

Sight as near as possible to the point of a line staff. Never 
trust the line when only two or three feet of the top can 
be seen. 

Many other things are used for marks to sight to in transit 
work. A plumb bob string, a small nail, or the point of a 
lead pencil, are suitable marks up to 300 ft. or so ; a lead 
pencil, or one of the 6" spikes from the measuring set, 
from 100 to 500 or 600 feet. From thence on for a couple 
of miles the line staff, made of Yz" pipe is suitable. These 
distances are subject to modification according to the con- 
ditions of seeing. The line staff is used within short dis- 
tances from the transit. The tendency is to use much too 
large marks to- sight to. Neither is there always sufficient 
care bestowed in selecting and placing them so the pointing 
on them will be precise. 

One of the more useful marks in transit work is a picket. 
Where there is timber, cut a stick 1" to 2" thick, about a 
foot longer than the height of the transit as usually set 
up. Make a straight blaze along about two feet of its 
top about y^" wide for sights from one to three thousand 
feet long. Choose the lightest colored wood, as hickory 
or basswood. Cut the top square across the blaze with a 
slant back from the blaze. Sharpen the bottom end to go 
in the ground. Before moving the transit turn its telescope 
on to the mark where the next set up is to be. Stick up 
this picket with the straight blaze set to look plumb from 
the forward set up place, so it will stand firm with the 
blaze close up to the eyepiece. Range the blaze fairly be- 
hind the telescope. If the telescope is inverting, look 
through it from the objective end. If the picket is not too 
close the blaze may then be set in the middle of the open- 
ing. If the telescope is erecting sight over it, or beneath 
it and on each side of it. At the new set up set the verti- 



III. HANDIvING INSTRUMENTS 33 

cal cross wire to bisect the blaze on the picket at the place 
that was at the eyepiece. This picket is better than a 
line staff held up on the mark and dispenses with one man. 
Any other kind of a stick may be used, as a piece of board. 

Short sights should be avoided. Sometimes this cannot be 
done. Then use a plumb bob string, a fine nail, a pencil 
point, the back of a pocket knife blade, or some similar 
small object. In sighting to a plumb bob string, set the 
cross wire on it as near the place from which it is sus- 
pended, as practicable. Often the plumb bob string may 
be held in the hand grasping a line staff, or long stake, 
stuck into the ground to one side of the line of vision, and 
inclined till the point of the bob is exactly to the mark it 
is desired to sight to. This will steady the hand holding 
the string. 

A picket, — long or short, — of suitable thickness may be stuck 
in the ground back of a mark and inclined over the mark 
till a plumb bob string held to the center of its top brings 
the point of the bob to the mark. Sight to the top of a 
picket set in this way, where the plumb bob string was. 

A very useful mark to sight to, both for short sights and 
those up to a thousand feet, or more, is made by sticking 
a nail, fine, or thicker, as may be needed, twice through a 
piece of white paper so- that the paper will form a back 
ground for the nail when set in line. Fold the paper, or 
cut it, into a rectangle. Stick the nail exactly central in 
the paper and parallel to the sides of the rectangle. This 
mark is often used by first setting the cross wire on the 
line where it is to be set by reference to a mark on that 
line by some other means, as a line staff, or a plumb line, 
and then setting the nail on line with the transit. Drive 
the nail plumb. After the nail has been set test the steadi- 
ness of the transit by again sighting to the reference mark. 
The person with the line staff or plumb line can then be 
released for other duty, the nail being used for reference. 
If prepared and set as directed, this mark can be referred 
to for line, from any place where the paper can be distinctly 
seen. 



34 III- HANDLING INSTRUMENTS 

In sighting to a stick or mark of any kind, set to show a 
hne, use the very spot that was set on the hne, not the 
other part. 

31. Locating a Mark. 

To locate a mark on a designated hne, set up the transit at 
a mark on that hne, and set the hne of sight (vertical cross 
wire), on another mark on that line, as above directed. 

Turn the telescope on the transit axis to look to the place 
where the new mark is required. Set a line staff in line at 
this place. Drive a stout stake, or plug, where the staff 
stood till flush with the ground. While the stake, or plug, 
is being driven, see that the point of the plumb bob is to the 
mark, that the plate levels read level, and that the vertical 
cross wires strike the other mark on the reference line. 
When the plug is down, and the transit exactly set, and 
standing so, set the staif precisely in line on top of the 
plug, — the staff being plumb. Look again to the stability 
of the transit, and, finding it secure, signal "All right." 
Drive a small wire nail at the mark in the plug made by 
the point of the staff, leaving the head up a little. There 
are many other ways of marking points. 

Measure and record, distances from the nail in the plug to 
three, or more, of the nearest and most permanent objects, 
such as trees, foundations, hydrants, lamp posts, or pumps, 
with their directions from the plug and plain descriptions 
of them. Also measure and record the distance from the 
nail in the plug to some other mark on the same line. 

32. Signals. 

Stand squarely behind the transit when giving signals. Make 

the motions slowly, especially if they are to be read at some 

distance. It is usual to move too quickly in giving signals. 
To' say "Move the line staff to the right," stretch out the 

right hand and arm level. 
To say "Move the line staff to the left," stretch out the left 

hand and arm level. 
Let one down by the side before raising the other. 



III. HANDLING INSTRUMENTS 35 

To say "All right," raise both hands above the head and 

with the arms fully extended, bring them slowly down to 

the sides. 
To say "Hold up the line staff," throw the weight onto one 

foot and extend the opposite hand and arm as high as they 

will reach. 
To say "Plumb the line staff," incline the head in the direc- 
tion the top of the staff should go. 
To say "Come here," beckon with the hat, or head covering. 

The transit man should not "move up" until called in this 

way. 
Many additional special signals will grow up in any party 

working for some time on the same work. 
The signals with a handkerchief, a flag, or the like, are 

based on those given. 
To the right, — show the flag to the right. 
To the left, — show the flag to the left. 
All right, — wave the flag slowly back and forth, aloft. 
Hold up staff, — stretch up the hand with the flag in it. 
Plumb the staff', — stretch up the hand with the flag in it and 

incline the flag in the direction of the top of the staff should 

go- ^ 

Come here, — raise the flag staff with the head cover on its 

top. 
A whistle is very useful for signalling. It is made of tin, 

with a "barrel" about one inch in diameter. Most tinners 

know how to make one. 
To the right, — one blast. 
To the left, — two blasts. 
All right, — three blasts. 
Hold up the staff', — one long blast. 
Plumb the staff, — one rather long blast followed by one toot 

for top to the right, or two toots for top to the left. 
Come here, — two long blasts. 
Something in the way, — repeated short toots. 
Come back and clear out the line, — short toot, then a blast, 

repeated as the axeman comes back till he is brought to the 

spot. He may get too far back. 



36 III. HANDLING INSTRUMENTS 

Go ahead, — a blast, then a short toot. So bring him to the 
spot. Then signal him right, or left, as above, and also 

Up, — two toots and a blast. 

Down, — a blast and two toots. 

So it is possible to bring his hand to the thing that makes 
the trouble. When he has the line clear, give him, — All 
right, — Go ahead. 

All hands this way, — four blasts. 

The above are illustrations which may be greatly extended 
if occasion requires. 

Right and left must always mean with respect to the direc- 
tion in which the line is going and not the direction in 
which the telescope on the transit may chance to be looking. 

33, Putting away Transit. 

Bring in the transit when through work. 

See that it is in good order for immediate use. If not, make 

it so. 
Put it in its box at once. Do not leave it standing around on 
its tripod. 

The place for an instrument is in its box, when not in use. 
The place for the box, with the instrument in it. is where the 

temperature is steady and where it will be let alone. 
Keep in the box with the instrument a fine camel's hair 

brush and a piece of the softest chamois skin for the lenses. 

keep there another camel's hair brush, such as painters 

use, about an inch wide, for dusting oiT the instrument; 

also soft cloths for wiping it. 
Take off the plumb bob, wind up its string neatly, and put 

it in its place in the transit box. 
Put the reading glass in its place in the box. 
Release the spindle and transit axis clamps, if not released. 
Take ofif the shade and put it in its place in the box. 
See if the objective and outside eyepiece lens need dusting 

off. If they do, dust them off with the lens brush. They 

may need slight wiping with the chamois. Beware of 

scratching them. 
Close the cap to the eyepiece. 



Iir. HANDLING INSTRUMENTS 37 

Cover the objective with its cap after seeing that the cap 
is clean. 

Dust off all parts of the instrument with its brush, if it needs 
dusting. Wipe it with cloths if required. 

Release the leveling screws. 

Place the transit central on its base plate. 

Tighten the leveling screws rather firmly, making them all 
even so the plates between which they work will be parallel. 

Unscrew the instrument from its tripod. 

Screw it on to its sliding board, if there is one. 

Clamp the spindle and release the plate clamp. 

Slide the board into the box carefully with the instrument 
on it and in its proper position. 

By trial and examination set the telescope and other parts 
so as to be as clear of the box as possible. 

Clamp the plate and transit axis but not very hard. 

See that the door of the box shuts freely, — no crowding. 

Close the box. Fasten it. Lock it. Put the key away. Set 
the box in its place. Close and strap the tripod. Put it 
away in a safe place. 

If there is no sliding board, place the transit in its box in 
its proper position, so the spindle clamp and transit axis 
clamp are accessible. When the instrument is securely 
placed clamp those clamps slightly, also the transit axis 
clamp. See that the box closes freely. Close and lock it, 
and set in its place. 

If an instrument comes in wet wipe it off with soft cloths 
and brush the moisture off the outside of the objective 
and eye lens with the lens brush, or wipe them with the 
chamois, or both. 

Unscrew the instrument from its tripod, and set it in a warm 
(not hot) place to dry, where it will not be touched. 

If there is water between the glasses of the objective, or with- 
in the eyepiece, or inside of the tubes, or between the 
plates, let the instrument stand in a warm place for some 
time (say over night) and it may come out. Do not make 
haste to be taking things apart to get it out. While wait- 
ing for the transit to dry, put the' reading glass, plumb 



38 III. PIANDLING INSTRUMENTS 

bob, and shade in their places in the box. Leave the cap 
off of the objective and the eyepiece cap open till the in- 
strument is dry. When it is dry, dust and clean it, if it 
heeds it. See that the parts are working freely. Put it 
away in its box. 

If an instrument has to be transported, have a packing case 
well upholstered within on all six sides to set the instru- 
ment box in. It should fit snug. 

For the reading of an angle see 50. 

34. Level. 

For information relating to the following subjects read what 
is said regarding them under Transit. There should be 
no difficulty in applying the statements to the handling of 
a level. 

Packing in its box. 

Tripod. 

Screwing to tripod. 

Cap over objective, and shade. 

Setting box away. 

Carrying on shoulder. 

Setting down. Does not have to be set up over a mark. 

Finding crosswires. 

Focussing objective. 

Lift the level by its base or by the bar upon which the tele- 
scope is mounted, — not by the telescope. 

In leveling this instrument, turn the bar to stand over a pair 
of leveling screws. 

Operate this pair till the bubble tube reads nearly level, leav- 
ing the screws loose. 

Turn the bar over the other pair of leveling screws. 

Operate this pair till the bubble tube reads level, leaving 
them a little tight. 

Turn the bar back over the first pair, — do not reverse it. 

Operate this pair again till the bubble reads level, leaving 
them a bit tighter than the other pair. 

Turn the bar back over the other pair, — do not reverse it 
at any time wdiiJe leveling this instrument. 



III. HANDLING INSTRUMENTS 39 

Operate this pair till the bubble reads level and they are as 
tight as will be needed. 

Turn the bar back over the first pair. 

Operate them till the bubble reads level, and they are tight 
enough. 

A few touches more and the bubble should read level in both 
positions. The bubble tube is much more sensitive than those 
in the plate levels of a transit and correspondingly more 
dit^cult to set to read level. 

The leveling screws should bear evenly, not too tight, and 
turn by the application of the same force to each. They 
need be only tight enough to hold the bubble level. When 
there is no wind at all they may be entirely loose, the level 
standing upon their bottom ends, with no pressure on the 
ball and socket joint in the base plate. 

The level is then ready for observing, although may be the 
bubble will not read level if the bar should be reversed. 

It is now said to be set up. 

35. Leveling Rod. 

There is used with a level, a leveling rod. 

This is an accurately divided wooden rod. The unit of divi- 
sion may be anything, but the foot and the meter are prob- 
ably the most used. 

There are target rods and speaking rods, — so-called. 

On the target rod is a target, or two in some cases, to which 
the pointing of the level is made. After the target has 
been set by direction of the leveler, the rodman reads the 
distance of the sight line on it from the zero of the divi- 
sions, or graduations, usually with the aid of a vernier. 

The speaking rod has no target. The leveler reads the rod 
without assistance from the rodman, by noticing where 
the horizontal cross wire appears to lie on the graduations. 

The target rods in most common use in the United States 
are the Boston Rod, the New York Rod, the Philadelphia 
Rod, and the Troy Rod. There is some choice in the kind 
and plan of a rod for different kinds of work. 



40 III. HANDLING INSTRUMENTS 

The targets in common use are of a pattern which introduces 
a considerable uncertainty into the rod readings, especially 
when at some distance from the level. These patterns can 
be easily improved by using central white spaces on the tar- 
get, of increasing width towards the sides of the target, 
these spaces to be bisected by the horizontal cross wire, 
using the wider ones on distant sights. These spaces should 
be rectangular in form. 

Speaking rod patterns are of a very great variety of forms, 
avoid those containing oblique lines, points and sharp an- 
gles. The pattern should be made up of rectangles, paint- 
ed alternately white and black. The pattern should be so 
arranged that the horizontal cross wire will always lie on 
a white surface, except at the edges of the black rectangles. 
The rectangles may be one-tenth of a foot high, or a half 
a tenth of a foot, the hundredth of a foot, where needed, 
being estimated by the leveler. 

Do not infer because a target rod is read to thousandths of 
a foot by a vernier, while the hundredths of a foot on a 
speaking rod are "Guessed at," and the thousandths 
'Thrown away," that the target rod is either more pre- 
cise or more trustworthy. 

Target rods are made in more than two pieces, for obtaining 
a longer extension, or a shorter length when closed. 

Speaking rods are hinged, or jointed, for compactness. They 
are also made in the form of a broad tape, to be fastened 
to a board for use, and rolled up when not in use, — the 
"Flexible" rod. For many uses, take a strip of wood of 
any suitable length, J4," x 2'\ and tack on to it a piece of 
a metallic tape measure. Mark off, on the stick, the even 
feet from the steel tape, and tack on the tape so its foot 
marks fit these. This rod may be of any length, up to 
fifteen feet. It is very useful on rough work. 

The leveling rod is used for measuring the vertical distance 
between the line of sight of the level and any object. The 
object may be below the line of sight of the level, as is 
commonly the case in surveys upon the surface of the 
ground, or above it, as in overhead work, which may be 



III. HANDUNG INSTRUMENTS 4I 

met with in tunnels, mines, setting of steel beams, or in 
leveling shafting. 

The rod is used by holding it vertical, or waving it slightly, 
so as to measure the shortest distance from the line of 
sight of the level to the object upon which the foot of the 
rod is held. In leveling shafting, a large hook is sometimes 
screwed into the foot of the rod and the rod hung from 
the shafting by this hook. A hook with a square turn is used, 
also one with a circular curve of a larger radius than the 
shafting. The latter can be used on shafting of any size 
smaller than the curve of the hook, while the hook with 
the square turn sets lower on the smaller shafting and re- 
quires a correction to the rod reading in addition to that 
for the size of the shafting when the axis of the whole 
line, it may be containing different sizes, must be placed 
at the same height. 

When using a target rod, the rodman should move the target 
as directed b}^ the leveler, with an uniform, steady, even, 
motion, not by jerks, and spurts. 

When using a speaking rod the rodman should be very partic- 
ular to hold it plumb. Read the suggestions for holding 
a line staff" plumb. 

When using any rod the rodman should stand squarely back 
of the rod and face the level. 

36. Signals. 

Target to be moved down, leveler lowers his hand and shows 
the back of it to the rodman, who keeps the target going 
down with an even motion until stopped by a signal from 
the leveler. 

Target to be moved up, leveler raises his hand and shows the 
inside of it to the rodman. who keeps the target going up 
with an even motion until stopped by a signal from the 
leveler. 

As the sight line on the target approaches the horizontal 
cross wire the leveler quickly throws his hand and arm 
out to a horizontal position in time to catch the target with 
its sight line on the cross wire. This he will soon learn 



42 III. HANDLING INSTRUMENTS 

to come very near doing. The rodman seeing this signal, 
as quickly stops the target and holds it from slipping. A 
slight adjustment of the target will bring it exactly to 
place. 

The leveler extends both arms to say "All right." 

To say "Plumb the rod," the leveler inclines his head the way 
the top of the rod should go. 

To say "Wave the rod," the leveler raises his hand above his 
head and waves it back and forth towards and away from 
the rod. 

To say "Hold up the rod," the leveler throws his weight on 
to one foot and raises his opposite hand as high as he can 
reach. 

To say "Clamp the target" or "Clamp the rod," the leveler 
whirls his hand around as if turning a crank. 

In a wind the rodman may not be able to make the leveler 
hear distinctly his call of the figures in the reading of a 
target rod. It is quite easy to mistake "five" for "nine." 
The rodman lays his rod on the ground and stands facing 
across the levelers line of vision. He extends his arms 
wide apart vertically and brings the palms of hands to- 
gether, not too quickly, as many times as there are units in 
the figure he wishes to communicate, — as seven times for 
figure seven. He makes a short pause. He makes the next 
figure in the same way, and so on till the leveler signals 
"All right," that he understands them all. 

To say "Repeat the rod reading," the leveler waves his hand 
with jerks and mixed movements, signifying confusion. 

A rod is "Read" by repeating the figures of the entire read- 
ing, speaking the feet (or other units) first, — as "Eleven," 
— pausing slightly, and following with the figures in their 
order in the decimal part of the reading. 

Shouting, noise, and racket, are no part of surveying. Keep 
as quiet as possible, and give undivided attention to the 
work. It takes this to avoid errors, mistakes, and blunders. 

"Short rod" means a movement of the target within the 
length of the foot piece, or bottom piece, of the rod. 

"Long rod" means a movement of the target beyond the 
length of the foot piece of the rod. 



III. HANDI^ING INSTRUMENTS 43 

For long rod with the "New York" or "Philadelphia," rod 
set the target exactly to- the short rod reading at which the 
long rod reading begins, — as at 6,500, on some New York 
rods. Be particular about this, or the long rod readings 
will be wrong. 

For long rod with the "Boston" simply invert the rod and 
take the reading from the other vernier. 

For long rod with the "Troy" rod, the leveler sights to the 
upper target and adds the distance, — as 6 ft., — between 
the sight lines of the targets, to the reading from the ver- 
nier. 

37. Taking a Rod Reading. 

Hold the rod vertically with its foot on the object upon 

which a rod reading is to be taken. 
Direct the telescope to look at the rod. 
Focus the objective sharply on the rod. 
See if the bubble reads level. If not, start the leveling 

screws that are nearest parallel to the level tube slightly 

and set them so the bubble will read level and stand at that 

reading. 
By directions from the leveler, the rodman sets the target so 

its sight line precisely matches the horizontal cross wire. 
Clamp the target. 
See if the bubble still reads level. If not, repeat the vv'ork, 

till it does. 
Wave the rod slowly back and forth, towards and away from 

the level, past the vertical both ways, if the rod reading is 

over six feet. If there is much wind wave the rod for a 

reading of over four and a half feet. 
See if the target is set to match its sight line precisely to the 

cross wire once in its path, as it is waved, and passes 

below the wire each way from that one place. 
See if the bubble reads level. 
When satisfied read the rod. 
Do not vv^ave the rod for a short reading, — say up to two or 

three feet, — or the reading will be wrong. 



44 III- HANDLING INSTRUMIJNTS 

Always be sure the bubble reads level 'for every rod reading 
whether the level is in adjustment, or not. 

The above directions provide for a rod reading having all 
the precision possible, with the instruments used. Such 
rod readings should be taken on all Bench Marks, Turn- 
ing Points, or other objects, upon which the transfer, con- 
tinuation, or preservation, of the levels depend. 

In placing pegs, or other marks, for construction it is custom- 
ary to read the rod to hundredths of a foot, and not to 
use quite the extreme care above outlined. 

In taking rod readings on the surface of the ground merely 
to get its elevation, it is customary to seek to obtain their 
correct value to the nearest tenth, or half tenth, of a foot, 
and much less care is needed. 

The above directions for the target rod may be adapted to 
'the use of the speaking rod. 

38. Putting away Level. 

Bring in the level and rod when through work. 

See that the level is in good order for immeidate use. If 
not, make it so. 

Put it in its box at once. Do not leave it standing around 
on its tripod. 

The place for an instrument is in its box, when not in use. 

The place for the box, with the instrument in it, is where the 
temperature is steady and where it will be let alone. 

Keep in the box with the instrument a fine camel's hair 
brush and a piece of the softest chamois skin for the lenses. 

Keep there another camel's hair brush, such as painters 
use, about an inch wide, for dusting off the instrument; 
also soft cloths for wiping it. 

Take off the shade and put it in its place in the box. 

See if the objective and outside eyepiece lens need dusting off. 
If they do, dust them off with the lens brush. They may 
need slight wiping with the chamois. Beware of scratch- 
ing them. 

Close the cap to the eyepiece. 



I 



III. HANDLING INSTRUMENTS 45 

Cover the objective with its cap after seeing that the cap is 

clean. 

Dust off all parts of the level with its brush if it needs dust- 
ing. Wipe it with cloths if required. 

Release the leveling screws. 

Tighten them rather firmly, making them all even so the 
plates between which they work will be parallel. 

Unscrew the level from its tripod. 

Put the level in its box. 

See that the box closes freely, — no crowding. 

Close the box. Fasten it. Lock it. Put the key away. Set 
the box in its place. 

Close and strap the tripod. Put it away in a secure place. 

In case a level comes in wet follow the instruction given for 
the transit when wet. 

If a level has to be transported, have a packing case well 
upholstered within on all six sides to set the instrument 
box in. It should fit snug. 

39. Putting away Leveling Rod. 

See that the leveling rod is in good order for immediate use. 

If not, make it so. 
Put it away in its place at once. Do not leave it standing 

around. 

Dirt and damage from use, or abuse, make a rod worthless. 

Clamp screws can be cleaned. Leave no oil when done. 
Clamps can be refitted. 
Metal parts can be fastened better. 
Fixed targets, as on the Boston Rod, can be fastened on 

more securely. 
Common hard soap will lubricate clean wooden parts. 
If the rod is dim to read from dirt, wash it with soap and 

water. 



46 ITT. HANDLING INSTRUMENTS 



III. HANDLING INSTRUMENTS. 

practice;. 
Setting up, and putting away instruments. 

40. Transit. 

Outfit. 

Transit. 

Axe, stakes, and nails. 

Line staff. 
Examine the articles as issued or be liable for the defects 

found upon their return. 

4L Inspection of Transits. 

Try all clamps and slow motion screws. 
Try all rotary motions. 
Spindle axis. 
Plate. 
Verniers. 

Transit, or telescope axis. 
Try focussing motions. 
Objective slide. 
Eye piece. 
Try leveling screws. 

If not on center of base plate with leveling screws even 
and firm, return to user. 
Look for cross wires, 

plumb bob chain, 

reading glass, 

plumb bob, 

shade, 

cap over objective, 

screw driver, 

adjusting pins, 



III. HAXDLIXG INSTRUMENTS 47 

camel's hair brushes, 
damage to box, 

broken, or cracked, bubble tubes, 
scratches on the objective, 
cap on eyepiece, and 
evidences of blows, upsets, or abuse. 
Examine all circles and their verniers for scratches, 
dents, and injuries of any kind. 

42. Inspection of Tripods. 

Look for shoes, 

loose shoes, 

wing nuts, 

bolts, 

breaks, or splits, in legs, 

damage to top screw, 

cover cap, 

dents, or bends, in top casting, and 

evidences of misuse or abuse. 

43, Reminders. 

Observe narrowly how the transit is packed in its box. 

See 'that the shoes on the tripod are tight, and the screw on 

it in good order. 
Lift the transit by its plates, or base, — not by the transit axis 

or standards. 
Put the cap in the box. 

Put on the shade. 
Take the plumb bob and reading glass. 
Put the box away. 
Release all the leveling screws before beginning to level the 

transit. 
Focus the telescope carefully. 

Make pointings with precision. Bisect the mark accurately. 
Sight to the bottom of the line staff, if practicable. 
Use good stakes, — no splinters. 
Use good plugs, — 4" or more, across the top. — driven flush 

with the ground, — not stakes. These for instrument points. 



48 III. HANDLING INSTRUMENTS 

Make good notes. They cannot be too good. 

Watch all the stuff all the time, or some of it will get lost, 

Each person be responsible for certain articles. 

Before moving away from a work place, find all of the out- 
fit and account for every article. 

When through work, put everything away, in order for im- 
mediate use, and in its place. 

44. Take a transit out of doors. Set it up properly over a 

nail in a stake, or plug. Learn and operate the different 
motions and parts. Find the cross wires. Set the line of 
sight on a mark. Locate a new mark, as a nail in a plug, 
on the line to the mark sighted to. Take down the transit, 
repack it in its box properly, and put it way. 

45. Level. 

Outfit. 

Level. 

Leveling Rod. 

Axe, and stakes. 
Examine the articles as issued or be liable for the defects 

found upon their return. 

46. Inspection of Levels. 

Try clamp and slow motion screw. 
Try rotary mo'tions. 
Spindle axis. 
Telescope in wyes. 
Try focussing motions. 
Objective slide. 
Eyepiece. 

Try leveling screws. 
If not even and firm, return to user. 
Look for cross wires, 
shade, 

cap over objective, 
screw driver, 
adjusting pins, 






III. HANDI^ING INSTRUMENTS 49 

camel's hair brushes, 

damage to box, 

broken, or cracked, bubble tubes, 

scratches on objective, 

cap on eyepiece, and 

evidences of blows, upsets, or abuse. 

47. Inspection of Leveling Rods. 

Try the clamps. 

Try the slide. 

Look for clamp screws, — bent, broken, or lost, — 

loose target, on Boston, or Troy, Rods, 

scratched, or bent, target, dirt, 

scratches on scales, or face of rod, dirt, 

damaged, or lost, verniers, 

splits, or breaks, in tongue and groove, and 

evidences of blows, falls, or abuse. 

48. Reminders. 

See how the level is packed in its box. 

Examine the tripod. 

Lift the level by its base or bar. 

Put the cap in the box; 

Put on the shade. 

Put the box away. 

Release all the leveling screws before beginning t^ level the 
instrument. 

Focus the telescope carefully. 

Set the target accurately. 

See that the bubble reads level for every rod reading. 

Hold the rod plumb. 

Watch all the stuff all the time, or some of it will get lost. 

Each person be responsible for certain articles. 

Do not set a leveling rod where it is liable to fall down and 
be broken. This is too common. Lay it on the ground. 

When through work, put everything away, in order for im- 
mediate use, and in its place. 



50 III. HANDLING INSTRUMENTS 

49. Take out of doors, a level and rod. Set up the level. 
Learn and operate the different motions and parts. Hav- 
ing set it up firmly and leveled it carefully, take a rod 
reading on a B. M. Find H. I. Take other rod readings 
on various places and find their elevations. Take down 
the level, repack it properly in its box, and put it away. 
Put the rod away. 
Learn to use both the target rod and the speaking rod. 



IV. SURVEY OF A TRIANGLE. 

INFORMATION. 

50. Reading an Angle. 

Set up the transit over the mark at the vertex of the angle. 
Clamp the plate. Set the line of sight on the object which 
marks the left hand side of the angle, using the spindle 
clamp and slow motion screw. See that the plate levels 
read level. 

Read the plate. Record the readings. 

See that the line of sight still strikes the object on which 
it was set. 

By repeated examinations make sure the transit is stable, 
level, the line of sight on the object, and the plate readings 
recorded correctly. 

Release the plate clamp. 

Set the line of sight on the object which marks the right 
hand side of the angle, using the plate clamp and slow 
motion screw. 

See if the plate levels read level. If much out repeat all the 
previous work and adjust these levels if necessary. So 
make sure of the setting of the transit for the second ob- 
ject. 

Read the plate. Record the readings. 

See that the line of sight still strikes the object upon which 
it was last set. 

Release the plate clamp. 

Set the line of sight again on the left hand object, using the 
plate clamp and slow motion screw. 

See that the plate levels read level. 

Read the plate. Record the readings. 

See that the line of sight still strikes the left hand object. 



52 IV. surve;y of a triangIvF 

See if the first and last readings are alike, or nearly so. If 

not, repeat the work till they are 
Follow the form herewith. 
Reduce the value of the angle by one of the methods shown. 



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IV. SURVEY OF A TRIANGLE. 

FIICLDWORK. 

51. Outfit. 

Transit. 
Measuring set. 
Axe, stakes, and nails. 
Examine the articles as issued, or be liable for defects found 
upon their return. 

52. Stake out a triangle with sides about 500 ft. long. Esti- 

mate their length. 

Designate the stakes by A, B, C. 

Record a description of each stake, and its general location, 
under its letter, in the note book. Take four, or more, 
witnesses to each stake. Record these witnesses with the 
description of the stake. 

OA. Is a nail in a stake i"x2" driven flush with the 
ground in the S.W. corner of the second field N.W. of 
John Smith's house on the N.E. side of the South Ypsi- 
lanti Road about 1% miles S.E.'ly from State St. in Ann 
Arbor, Mich., from which a 

Witnesses. Swamp Oak 14" in diameter, bears N. about 
50° W. 8^45 to its center, and a 
Pear tree 6" bears N. about 25° E. 184'. 7 to cen. 
Spike in root of Soft Maple 20" S. 86° ? E. 42'. 19. 
4^3 W'ly to range of E"ly corner of barn about 10 rods 
S'ly, and the peak of the N.E'ly gable of the next dwelling 
S.E'ly from said barn on S.W'ly side of highway, above 
named. 

Similarly for O B and O C. 

Read, record, and reduce, the angles of this triangle, follow- 
ing the instructions and form, given above. 

Use small marks to sight to, — a nail, a spike, or a pencil. 

Measure the sides of this triangle, with the steel tapes. 

Record these measurements. 

Verify the work by adding the angles, and by the sine equa- 
tion, b sin A = a sin. B, &c. Record the discrepancies. 



54 IV. TWENTY ROD re;adings 

IV. TWENTY ROD READINGS 

On the Same B. M. 

. FlElvDWORK. 

53. Outfit. 

Ivevel. 

Leveling Rod, — target rod. 
Axe, and a stake. 
Examine the articles as issued, or be liable for defects found 
Upon their return. 

54. Directions. 

Set up the level firmly and level it carefully. 

Drive the stake 350 or 400 ft., estimated, away from the 

level, about flush with the ground. 
Rodman take leveler's notebook. 
Rodman hold up the rod on top of the stake. 
Set the target as precisely as possible. Be sure the bubble 

reads level. 
Rodman record the reading of the rod in the leveler's book 

according to the form below, without calling off the same. 
Leveler start the leveling screws sufficiently to throw the 

bubble away from its level reading. Do not disturb the 

level otherwise. 
Level the instrument again carefully. 
Take a second rod reading as precisely as possible. 
Rodman record the reading as before. 
Start the leveling screws again. 
Repeat these operations, using the utmost care, until there 

are twenty rod readings recorded in the leveler's book. 
Change places, and do the same work again. 
Add the twenty rod readings. 
Divide the sum by 20. 
Subtract each rod reading from the quotient, or average 

reading. 
Record the discrepancies, each with its proper sign. 
Add them. See if their total sum is zero. 
This is a device sometimes used to check the average result. 

It is not a very safe check, as it does not verify the various 
steps in the process. 



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V. READING ANGLES. CLOSING THE HORIZON: 



FIELDWORK. 

55. C at> 

Transit. 

Axe, and a stake and nail. 
Examine the articles as issued, or be liable for defects found 
upon their return. 

56. Directions. 

Take the transit to a place commanding a view around the 
horizon. 

Drive the stake flush with the ground and drive the nail in 
its top. 

Set up the transit firmly. Level it carefully. 

Select five, or more, objects at distances away of from half a 
mile to two miles, so as to divide the space around the 
horizon into five, or more, angles. 

Read, and record, each of these angles separately. 

Each person read each angle independently. 

Do not set the plates to read zero. 

For the nearer objects use a joint in the brick work of a 
chimney, a sash bar in a window, or some similar small 
object to sight to. At a greater distance the corner board 
on a house, the post on a porch, the finial on a cupola, or 
some similar somewhat larger object that can be bisected 
precisely, make suitable marks to sight to. 

Reduce the angles. 

Add them. See if the sum equals 360°. 

Record the discrepancy. 



56 V. pi;g lkveIvS. short circuit 

V. PEG LEVELS. SHORT CIRCUIT. 

i'ie;i,dwork. 

57. Outfit. 

Level. 

Leveling Rod. 

Axe. Pegs. Piece of chalk. 
Examine the articles as issued, or be liable for defects found 
upon their return. 

58. Directions. 

To find the difference in elevation between two objects not 
far apart. Involves three or four settings of the level. 
Done to learn the process. Follow the form, given below, 
for the record. 

Set up the level firmly, not over 350 ft. away from the place 
from which the leveling is to proceed, and where it will 
be convenient to continue towards the place the levels are 
to rUn to. Level the instrument carefully. 

Take a rod reading with precision on B. M. 

Record it in the -\~ S column. 

Rodman find a suitable place for a turning point not over 
350 ft. from the level and where it will be convenient for 
continuing the leveling. Such places are tops of stones 
fast in the ground, tops of curbs, cement, or stone, walks, 
cross walks, or tops of hydrants. On a large surface like 
a curb or cross walk mark the place the rod is held up on 
with chalk, or otherwise, so it cannot be mistaken, and 
can be found again. If no such place is found, drive a peg 
in the ground till it stands firm and is nearly flush with the 
surface. Use the top of this peg for a turning point. 

Take a rod reading with precision on T. P. (turning point). 

Record it in the — S column on the next line below the last 
rod reading in the + S column. 

Take up the level,— after the record is made, not too quickly. 

Set it up not over 350 ft. beyond the T. P. on the way the 
levels are to go. 



V. PEG LEVELS. SHORT CIRCUIT 57 

Take a rod reading with precision on the T. P. 

Record it in the -|- S column on the same Hne as the last 

rod reading in the — S column. 
Rodman, find, or make, the next T. P. 
Take a rod reading on it, as before. 
Record this in the — S column on the next line below the 

last rod reading in the -|- S column. 
Alove the level, as before. 
Continue the work in this manner until a rod reading is 

taken on the place to which the levels run and is recorded 

in the — S column. 
Let the level stand. 

Continue the record as above outlined, and as per form. 
Leveler take the rod. Rodman take the level. 
Repeat the rod reading on the place the levels were run to, 

preparatory to returning on the same pegs. 
Record this in the second -|- S column on the same line as 

the previous rod reading on the same place in the first — S 

column. 
Repeat the rod reading on the last T. P. 
Record this in the second — S column on the next line above 

the last rod reading in the second -|- S column. 
]\Iove the level. 
Continue the work back to the starting place, until a rod 

reading is taken on the B. AI. where the levels began. 
Record the successive rod readings in the second -(- S and 

— S columns, proceeding up the page as in the form. 
Add the rod readings in each -{- S column. 
Add the rod readings in each — S column. 
Add, with their signs, each pair of these sums, that is, find 

the algebraic sum of the rod readings taken on the way 

out, and of those taken on the way back. 
See if these results have opposite signs and are nearly equal. 

If not, repeat the work and correct the errors. There is 

no way of finding an error in such work except by repeat- 
ing the work. A plus result shows the place at the end 

of the run to be higher, and a minus result, lower, than the 

starting place. 



58 V. PEG IvKVELS. SHORT CIRCUIT 

Add the rod readings, with their signs, in pairs, that were 
taken at each setting of the level, as -|- 6.381 and — 11.592, 
giving — 5.211 as the distance the first T. P. is below the 
B. M. Enter these sums, with their signs, in columns, be- 
side the rod readings that gave them, both going and re- 
turning. For convenient comparison the figures may be 
arranged as in the form. There may be found greater 
discrepancies in the figures showing the difference in ele- 
vation between the same two T. P's going, and returning, 

■ than appears for the entire circuit. In the form, the dis- 
crepancy for the circuit is 1.764 — 1.760 ^ 0.004, while 
between the first and second T. P's the discrepancy is 
7.835 — 7.829 == 0.006. It may also be noticed that these 
discrepancies are in opposite directions. Such compari- 
sons show the so-called "Closing error" of a leveled cir- 
cuit to have only a general value, and that discrepancies in 
such work are compensating. 

If it is impracticable to use the same T. P.s, going and re- 
turning, the two lines of levels will have no connection 
except at their ends and the above comparison cannot be 
made. 



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-S 



px^ ^ p^, 



■+-S 



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f,9 15 - 7.y2«r + 7. 5-35 
o.Si ^ -f 0.5-?? - o.(iao 
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VI. INTERSECTIONS AND CONNECTIONS. 



59. Intersection of Two Straight Lines. 




Lines given by plugs at A, B, E and F. 

To find their intersection on the ground. 

Set up the transit at B. Backsight to A. By the back and 
foresight reversion method locate two marks on each of 
two plugs at C, and D. Set C first, a little beyond where 
the line EF is supposed to pass. Set D on the other side 
of EF. Set both plugs at the same pointing of the teles- 
cope. Give line for first marks on both at one pointing. 
Give line for the second marks at one pointing, after the 
instrument has been reversed. This takes but about half 
the instrument work that would be required to set and 
mark each plug separately. Mark each plug by a third 
mark equidistant from the other two. 

Move the transit and set it up at E. Stretch a string from 
C to D. Sight from E to F. By the foresight revision 
method locate two marks on each of the two plugs at G 
and H, one on each side of CD. Mark each plug by a 
third mark equidistant from the other two. 



6o VI. inte;rskctions and conne;ctions. 

Stretch a string from G to H. Drive a fifth plug at the 
intersection of the two strings. Mark the intersection 
of the strings on the pkig. 

The above is the five phig method. It is useful when digging 
has to be done, as in looking for a landmark, or in setting a 
monument. The plugs C, D, G and H can be set back from 
the intersection far enough to be safe from disturbance. 
If digging is to be done, first mark the intersection, and 
measure its distance accurately from all four marks, C, 
D, G and H. Also measure CG, GD, DH and HC. Re- 
cord all these measurements. 

On rough ground it is easy to place the plugs C and D, first 
set, both on the same side of EF. After setting G and H, 
and marking them, the transit may be set up at C or D, and 
by sighting to B, one, or more, additional plugs can be set 
in the proper position with respect to GH. 

The ground may be so rough that there will be difficulty in 
making the strings CD and GH touch. The fifth plug may 
be driven so as to receive the intersection by holding a 
plumb line so as to touch both strings when selecting the 
place for that plug. The line of each string may be trans- 
ferred to the fifth plug, below the strings, by sighting past 
a plumb line and the string down to the top of the plug 
while an assistant marks two places, one on each edge of 
the plug, jointing the marks on the same range. Mark their 
intersection. 

Should the ground be much higher at the intersection than at 
C, D, G and H, so strings cannot be stretched, set up the 
transit on C and sight to D, or better, to B, and mark a 
line on the ground for the fifth plug. Do the same on GH, 
with the transit. Mark GH on top of the plug after it is 
driven. Set up the transit again at C. Mark CD on the top 
of the plug. Mark the intersection of these lines on the 
plug. 

The transit may be used in a similar manner to transfer the 
lines into a hole between C, D, G and H. 

On comparatively smooth ground, and in many cases, 
three plugs are enough. After setting and marking C and 



VI. inti;rsections and connections. 6 1 

D, stretch a string on CD. Set up at E. Sight to F. Drive 
a third plug on EF and beneath the string CD. Mark this 
third pkig on both edges of its top just as G and H were 
marked. Drive a nail at the intersection of the string with 
the line GH drawn on the top of the third plug this is the 
three plug method. 

With the transit set up on each line a stake, plug, or an iron, 
can be driven at the intersection by taking line from both 
transits at once. To be nice about it a mark should be made 
at D, and H, near the intersection, so the line can be easily 
verified at almost any instant. The transit men should 
direct the driving of the stake, or iron, plumb. 

After the intersection is found and marked, measure to it on 
both lines, AB and EF, and record these measurements. 
Set up the transit at the intersection and read, and record, 
the angle between the lines AB and EF, Unless these 
three items are obtained and recorded the work will be in- 
complete. 

In general, it may be said that the intersection of any two 
lines is incomplete until the position of the intersection on 
both lines is ascertained by measurements, or distances, on 
those lines; the angle between the lines measured; and all 
the data recorded. 

60. Connection of a point, P, v^ith a straight line, AB. 



If pracicable, set up the transit at some point, C, on the line 
AB, from which P can be seen. Read and record the angle 
ACP, or PCB. Measure and record the distance CP, and 
a distance to C on AB. 
CD=CP cos PCB. PD=CP sin ACP. 



62 VI. INTliRSIiCTIONS AND CONNECTIONS. 

The coordinates of P with respect to AB thus become known. 

If P cannot be seen from any point on AB run a traverse C, 
E, F, P, from some point, C, the location of which on AB 
is known, making AB the reference hne for this traverse. 
Compute the traverses of CE, EF, and FP. Sum these 




traverses. These sums will be the values of CD and DP, 
but with no check on the result The sum of the sine trav- 
erses from C to P will be DP, and the sum of the cosine 
traverses from C to P, will be CD. If a check on the work 
is required, continue the traverse C, E, F, P, on round to 
H, I, and C, closing it. Compute the traverses of the clos- 
ed figure. Sum these traverses. Correct the work, or 
balance the traverses, the same as in any closed survey. 
Compute the coordinates of E, F, P, H, and C. The co- 
ordinates of P will be X = DP and y = CD, from C as an 
origin. 

61, Connection of a point, P, with a circular curve, C. 

Curve marked by equally spaced stakes. 

If practicable set up the transit at some station, S. on the 
curve, from which P can be seen. Sight to a distant sta- 
tion, V, with the plates set at the readings for V. Release 
the plate clamp. Make a pointing on P using the plate 
clamp and slow motion screw. Read the plates. Record 
the readings. Release the plate clamp. Make a pointing 
on V using the plate clamp and slow motion screw. Read 



VI. INTERSECTIONS AND CONNECTIONS. 



63 



the plates. Record the readings. See if the first and last 
readings agree. If not, repeat the work till they do. Meas- 
ure the distance SP and record it. 
If the position of P, with respect to the chord SV, is re- 
quired, subtract the readings for V from the readings for 
P. The result will be the angle DSP, or 360° — DSP. 
DP=SP sin DSP SD=SP cos DSP 




>i/.-' 



The difference between the readings for S and for V is th( 
angle WCS. CS=R. 



SW=R sin WCS 

SW- 
Tan WCP= ^ 



CW=R cos WCS 



SD 



CW — PD 
CP=(CW — PD) (I + exsec WCP) 
If CP be produced to meet the curve at J, 

JCS=WCS ^ WCP. 

Reading for J = readings for S ± ^ JCS, according to 
which side of S, J comes, and whether the curve is running 
to the right or to the left. 



64 VI. inte;rse;ctions and connijctions. 

If the position of P, with respect to the tangent vST, is re- 
quired, subtract the readings for S from he readings for 
P. The result will be the angle PST, or its supplement. 
SP multiplied by the sine and cosine of PST will be the 
co-ordinates of P from S with respect to ST. 

TanPCS=j^_gp ^.^ pg^ 

Readings for J are then found as before. 

P may be either side of CS and either inside or outside of 
the curve. All these details are not shown as they present 
no especial difficulty. 

If P cannot be seen from any station or other point on the 
curve, lay out a tangent ST, or a radial line CS, on the 
ground. With one of these lines as a reference line con- 
nect P with S by means of a traverse, making it a closed 
traverse if the work requires it. Figure this traverse and 
compute the coordinates of P from S as directed in con- 
necting a point with a line by traverse. Having the coor- 
dinates of P from S, the above computations can be made 
and the position of P, with respect to the curve, fully de- 
termined. 

When the position of P with respect to the curve is deter- 
mined any survey involving them can be made. 

P can be made the center of a curve tangent to the given 
curve. 

A circular curve can be passed through P and tangent to the 
given curve at any point. 

The tangent point of a right line tangent to the given curve 
that will pass through P can be located, when P is outside 
of the given curve. 

These are but examples of which there are more. 

62. Connection of two straight lines. 

When the lines cannot be intersected, join a point on each by 

a third line, or by a succession of lines. 
Lines given by plugs at A, B, C and D. 



VI. inte;rskctions and connections. 65 

To connect these lines by a survey, and get their relative po- 
sition. 

The given marks might ordinarily be connected, but the 
figure represents the case where other marks are used. 
Locate the mark E, on AB, and the mark F, on CD, to be 
connected. 

Connect E with F by a direct line if practicable. Measurt 
EF, and the angles AEF and DFE. Also locate E on AB 




and F on CD, by measurement. Record all this informa- 
tion. Notice that a connection of this kind calls for five 
items, — three linear measurements and two angles. 

When a direct line cannot be run, connect E with F by a 
succession of lines as EGHKF. Measure the angles at 
E, G, H, K and F. Measure all lines. Measure the po- 
sitions of E on AB, and of F on CD. Record all this in 
full. Notice that the number of angles is one more than 
the numher of lines between E and F, and that the number 
of linear measurements is two more. 

To add to the trustworthiness of the information repeat the 



A 



65 VI. inte;rsections and connections. 

angles at E and F and all the linear measurements when 
the one line, EF, is used. To increase the trustworthiness 
of the work in the other cases repeat the work, or run a 
traverse from one line as AB, starting at E ; thence to G, 
H,K,F, — at which place take readings on CD, repeated if 
necessary, — L,M,E., and to AB again, closing the traverse 
completely on that line. Record all 'these items. 

Leave out the readings on AB and CD, and compute the 
traverses for the closed figure E, G, H, K, F, L, M, E. 
Balance the traverses, and compute the coordinates of the 
angles. From the coordinates of E and F, compute the 
traverse angle and length of EF. From the readings on 
AB and CD, and the traverse angle of EF find the angles 
AEF and EFD. 

With the distance EF and the angles AEF and EFD, the po- 
sitions of E on AB and of F on CD having oeen measured, 
the relative positions of AB and CD can be computed and 
thence problems relating to AB and CD, solved. 

If AEF = EFD, AB and CD are parallel. 

If AEF > EFD, AB and CD intersect toward D. 

If AEF < EFD, AB and CD intersect toward A. 

The Difl'erence between AEF and EFD is the angle between 
AB and CD. 

Let AEF = E ; EFD = F ; AEF^^ EFD = K. 

Let EF = k ; the distance from E to the intersection of AB 
and CD = f ; and the distance from F to the intersection 
of AB and CD = e. 

k k • • 

e = sin E, f = -: — TT sin F; and the proof equation is 

sin K sin K , 

k- 
ef = -r-7T^sin E sin F 
sin" K 

Having the distances from E and F to the intersection of AB 
and CD, and the angle between them, the data is in hand 
for solving any problem with respect to these lines. The 
connection is completed and computed. 



VI. INTERSECTIONS AND CONNECTIONS. 67 

63. Intersection of a straight line and a circular curve. 

To find where a straight rail in a railway track intersects a 
rail of another, curved track, set up the transit on the 
gauge side of the straight rail and produce the line of the 
guage side of that rail to intersect the guage side of the 
curved rail. Mark this intersection. Measure and record 
the distance on the transit line to this intersection. Set 
up at this intersection. Measure from the intersection any 
number of station distances, or other equal distances, mark- 




ing points, equally spaced, on the guage side of the curved 
rail. Backsight along the straight transit line. Record the 
plate reading on this line. Release the plate clamp. By 
means of the plate clamp and slow motion screw take 
pointings and readings on all the equally spaced marks on 
the guage side of the curved rail, recording the same, and 
make and record a final pointing and reading on the straight 
transit line as a check. Be careful to make a good record 
of all this information. The radius of the curved rail and 
the position of its center with respect to the straight rail 
can be computed. 



68 VI. inte;rse;ctions and connections. 

^ c 
Radius, R =7 — -r where c is the chord used in spacing 

the marks on the curved rail, and d is the average differ- 
ence between the successive readings taken on those marks. 

Find the difference between the readings on the straight tran- 
sit Hne and the reading to each of the equally spaced marks 

■ on the curved rail, to get the angles from the straight line 
to the chords from the intersection, above described, to each 
of the marks in succession. Subtract from, or add to, the 
first angle, d, the second, 2d, the third, 3d, and so on, ob- 
taining values for the angle between the straight line and 
the tangent to the curve at their intersection. Take the 
average of these values for the angle, A, between said 
line and tangent. 

If the upper marks in the figure are used, A == convex AIS, 
if the lower, A = AIT. 

IB = R sin A CB = R cos A 

Having thus ascertained the relative positions of the two 
lines, various problems relating to them can be solved, such 
as joining these two rails by a curved rail tangent to them 
both or crossing either, or both, of them at a given angle. 

If the curve is marked on the ground by the usual stakes^, 
and not by a continuous line like a rail, the intersection of 
it by a straight line must be found in another way. 

In some cases a tangent to the curve may be run, as OE from 
O ; intersected with the straight line AE, at E ; the dis- 
tance OE, and the angle AEO, and the distance AE, meas- 
ured and recorded. 

Let E = AEO. CB = R cos E + OE sin E. 

Cos BCI =CB/R 

ICO = E — BCI rCO = E + BCI 

Eoi = y2 ICO Eor = >4 rco 

OI = 2R sin EOI OI' = 2R sin EOr 

Or the plus distance from i to I, or from 6 to I', can be com- 
puted and I located from i, or V from 6, the transit being 
at O. The line AE when extended should strike I or F. 
Measure EI or EI'. Compute II' = 2R sin BCI. 



VI. INTERSECTIONS AND CONNECTIONS. 



69 



Check:— OE'=EIxEI'. 

In case the tangent method cannot be used, connect some 
point, A, on the straight hne AE, with O, and by taking the 
plate readings at O from OA to the successive stations on 
the curve ascertain the angle AOE = O. Pleasure AO, 
OAE = A, and the position of A on AE. 

AEO = E = 180° — (A + O) 
CB = R cos E + AO sin A. 



AE = AO 



sin O 



OE = AO 



sin A 



sin E sin E 

Cos BCI = BC/R 




ICO = E — BCI 
I'CO = E + BCI 
EOI = y. ICO 

Eor = H I'co 



AOI = O + EOI 

Aor = o + Eor 

01 = 2R sin EOI 
or = 2R sin EOF 



Or the plus distance from i to I, or from 6 to F, can be com- 
puted and I locatedfrom i, or V from 6, the transit being 
at O. 

The line AE produced should strike I or I'. 

Measure AI or AF. Compute IF = 2R sin BCI. 

Find EI = AI — AE, and EF = AF — AE, 
EF — EI = IF as before. 

Check :— OE' = EI x EI' 



yo VI. INTERSECTIONS AND CONNECTIONS. 

64. Connection of a straight line and a circular curve which 
do not intersect. 

In some cases a radial line, as OF from O, perpendicular to 
the tangent OE, can be run ; intersected with the straight 
line AE, at F; the distances AF and OF, and the angle 
OFE = F, measured and recorded. 

FB = (R -f OF) cos F. CB = (R + OF) sin F. 

Having FB and CB, the relations of the circular curve and 
the straight line become known, and various problems re- 
lating to them can be solved. 

BCF = 90° — F, and the point G, on the curve, nearest to 
AE can be located. Measure GB. See if it equals CB — 
R. 




Sometimes the tangent at O, as OE, can be run; intersected 
with AE, at E; the distances AE and OE, and the angle 
AEO = E, measured and recorded. 

EB = OE cos E — R sin E. CB = OE sin E + R cos E. 

In case neither of the above methods can be used, connect 
some point. A, on the straight line AE, with O, and by- 
taking the plate readings at O from OA to the successive 
stations, or equally spaced marks on the curve, get the 
angle AOE = O. Measure and record OA and OAE ^ 
A. E = 180° — (A 4^ O) 

AB = R sin E + AO cos A. CB = R cos E + AO sin A. 

65, Intersection of two circular curves. 

Both may be marked by stations, or one by a continuous 
line, as a rail. Because the position of the intersection, I, 



VI. INTERSECTIONS AND CONNECTIONS. 7 1 

should be verified by angle and distances, both curves will 
be regarded as marked by stations, or some system of 
equally spaced marks, the latter to be used on a rail. 
Join A^, some mark, or station, on the curve, C^, with Ao, 
some mark or station, on the curve Co. Set up the transit 
at A^. Take readings on A.^, on i, 2, 3, 4, etc. on the 
curve Cj, and back on A^. Make a full and careful record 
of these readings. Move the transit and set it up at A,. 
Take and record as before, readings on A^, on i, 2, 3, 4, 
etc. on the curve C2, and back on A^. Measure and record 
A1A2 = k. As A^Ao is the reference line for the work it 




should be as long as practicable, and A, be taken at station 
10, or a similar station, on curve C2, to accomplish this. 

From the readings at A^ and the distance from Aj^ tC' i, r 
to 2, 2 to 3, etc. compute the radius, R^, of the curve C^ 
From these readings and those on A, find the angle 
EA,A. = Ai. " ■ 

From the readings at A^, and the distance A, to i, i to 2, 
2 to 3, etc. on curve Cg, compute the radius, R,, of this 
curve. From these readings and those on A^ find the angle 
FA2A1 = A,. 

If A1A2 is on the concave side of the curve, as at A^. the 
angle A^ must be reckoned to the inside of the tangent 
A,E. 



72 VI. INTERSECTIONS AND CONNECTIONS. 

If A^Ao is on the convex side of the curve, as at A,, the 
angle Ao must be reckoned to the outside of the tangent 
A,F. 

The angles A^ and Ao will both be reckoned to the outside of 
the tangents at A^ and A2 when A^A^ lies outside of both 
curves. As they may be reckoned from either side of A^Ag, 
there will be four ways in which they may be taken, only 
two of which are correct. 

These angles will both be reckoned to the inside of the tan- 
gents when A^Ao meets both curves on the concave side. 
There will be four ways of taking them, as before, only 
two of which are correct. There are four ways of taking 
them in the figure, only two of which are correct. It is 
therefore necessary to carefully observe the directions. 

If A^, or Ao, is reckoned to the inside of the tangent, as at 
A^, find, 

Ki = 90° — Ai or K, = 90° — Ao, for A^ or Ao < 90°. 

K^ = Ai — 90° or K, =: Ao — 90°, for A^ or Ao >90°. 

If A^, or Ao, is reckoned to the outside of the tangent, as at 
Ao, find, 

K, = 90° + Ai or Ko = 270° — Ao. for A^ or A, < 90° 

Ki = 270° — Ai or K2 = 270° — Ao, for A^ or A2 > 90°. 

If A^ is reckoned to the inside of the tangent, and A, to the 
outside, as in the figure,, find the corresponding values of 
K-^ and K, in the above groups. Similarly for the reverse 
case. 

In the figure K^ = AoA^C^, and Ko = A^AoCo. 

-r^- , A ^r^ ^ Ri sin K-i — Ro sin Ko 

Fmd tan A,GC, = tan ^ = — ^- '— '- -- 

k — Kj^ cos K^ — K2 cos K2 

Observe all signs. 

C1C2 = a ^(k — Ri cos Kj^ — R2 cos Ko) (i + exsec /3) 

Ni = A.CiCo = 180° — (^ + KJ for R, sin K, > R, sin 

Ko. 
N2 = AoCoCi = 180° — (Ko — /?) for R, sin K, > R2 

sin K2. 
N, = AiC.Co = 180° — (K, — 13) for R^ sin K, < R^ 

sin Ko. 



VI. INTERSECTIONS AND CONNECTIONS. 73 

N, = AXX, = 180^ — (i8 + K.) for R, sin K, < R. 

sin K^. 
Check: — N, + N, + K, + K, = 360°. 
In the triangle CiCJ, compute all the angles. 



s = >< (R, + R, + a) . Tan >^ I = J 

. I =: C, IC,. 



(s — RJ (s — R,) 

S (S a) 



S (^S — ■ Ko ) 



Tan /. C, = Ki^::^i_LiiZl^^ C. = I C, C,. 

\ s(s — Ri_) " 

Check :— >^ I + >4 Ci + >4 C. = 90°. 

K N, — >^ C, =: >4 A,C,I. >^ C, — >4 N^ = K^ A,C J. 

Chord A J = 2R1 sin 3k A^C^l 

Chord A J = 2R2 sin >< A.C J 

With ^ A^C^I the readings for I from A^ can be found, and 
the short chord from 4 to I computed. The intersecion,I,can 
then be located with respect to the curve C^, with the transit 
at A^, using the long chord, A^^I, or the short chord from 
4 to I. Or the transit can be set at any station, by using 
the short chord from 4 to I. 

With ^ AoCoI the readings for I from A. can be found and 
the short chord from 4 to I computed for the curve C,. 
The intersection I, can then be located with respect to this 
curve. 

The two locations should give the same mark at I. Set up 
the transit at I. Take readings to the marks, i, 2, 3, 4, 
etc., on both curves, using the same backsight, say A^^. 
From these readings get the angle between the tangents to 
both curves at I. See if this equals I, as computed above, 
or 180° — 1. 

If the checks indicate erroneous work, review it and correct 
the errors. 



74 



VI. inte;rsections and connections. 



66. Connection of two circular curves which do not intersect. 

Make the connection as in the previous case, taking the 
same readings, making the same measurements, records 
and computations. By this process the angles A^, A2, K^, 
K,, Ni, and N, and the radii R^, and R, are found; the dis- 
tance, k = A^^Aa is measured ; and C^Co = a, computed. 
With these quantities known, problems relating to the two 
curves can be solved. 

If the common external tangent, T^T^,, is required it may be 
located as follows : 

rmd sm b 




T^Tg = a cos S. 

A.CiT, = Ni— 90° + S. A ATa = 90° + S — N2. 

Locate T.^ and T2 by means of these last angles ; the radii, 
Ri and Rg, and the necessary calculated quantities. Meas- 
ure T^Ta, and see if it equals the above computed value. 

For the internal common tangent V^V,, find 



V^Vo = (Ri + Ro) tan U = a sin U. 



VI. INTERSECTIONS AND CONNECTIONS. 75 

A.CiVi = Ni — U. AoCV. = N. + U. 

Locate V^ and V2 by means of these last angles, the radii, 
R^ and Ro, and the necessary calculated quantities. Meas- 
ure ViVn and see if it equals the computed value. 

For circular curve tangent to the two given curves. Assume 
its radius, R3. Find the sides and compute the angles in 
the triangle C^CoCg. 

AiQSi = 180° — N, — C,. AXoSo = 180° — N, — a. 

With these angles locate S,, and So- 



VII. PASSING OBSTRUCTIONS. 

67. Passing Small Objects on a Straight Line by Similar Tri- 
angles. 
Alignment. 

With the transit set up at B, locate E in the line a little way 
from the object. Take points F and G at equal distances 
from E on lines making such equal angles with AB that they 
will pass the object. Locate H and L on BL and beyond the 
object, taking L as far away as convenient. Locate K and 
M so that FK=: GH and KM = HL. Find P and N, or 
R and Q, equidistant from H and K, and L and M. Find, 
if necessary, BP =: BK cos KBP. 

Seek to get G and F in such positions that they may be used 
instead of H and K. This may be done by making the 



angles at B sufficiently large. The angles at B should 
always be small. In laying off the angles if the telescope 
is reversed about the transit axis the instrument should 
be reversed after laying off the firt angle and before laying 
off the second. If this is done the error of adjustment will 
be practically eliminated from the work. Since the sines 
of angles are proportional to the angles to four places of 
decimals up to 2°, the results of this method may be easily 
tested in any case. 
The sine of one minute is .0002909. Therefore HK = 
.00058 BK times the number of minutes in KBP. LM 
may be found similarly. It may be noticed that the location 
of two points beyond the object requires no figures at all. 
In measuring the distance EG and EF, as also the other dis- 
tances that admit of it, use a stick with blazed ends and a 
pencil mark on each end. This will insure equality of the 
distance. 



VII. PASSING OBSTRUCTIONS 



77 



68. Passing an Object on a Straight Line by Triangulation. 
Measurement. 




Take a point B in AB a little distance from the object. Take 
a second point, D, in the line produced beyond the object 
so that a third point, C, not in AB, can be seen from B and 
D. Choose C. Measure BC, DBC and BCD. Move the 
instrument to D. Measure BDC. Compute i8o° = BCD 
+ BDC + DBC. 



Also BD 



BC sin BCD 
sin BDC. 



If DBC be taken 60°, BCD 90°, and D located at the intersec- 
tion of AB and CD, BD = 2BC. C may be taken on either 
side of the object. 



69. Passing an Object on a Straight Line by Transversals. 
Measurement. 

Let the object be one that cannot be measured round. Set 
out the w^ork as indicated in the figure, if possible, making 
BC=one-sixth of the estimated value of CH, BCD = 90°, 
CBD = 60° and the triangle DOE equal in every respect 
to the triangle BCD. Locate H at the intersection of AC 
and EG. Find CH = 6.464 = 2BG — BC. Check:— 
BD = DE =1.155 (CD = DG). This test can be appHed 
to these triangles when laid out. 



78 



VII. PASSING OBSTRUCTIONS 




70. Passing an Object on a Straight Line by Approximate 
Length of Circular Arc. 
Measurement. 




Let the object be one that cannot be measured round. 

Locate a mark, B, in AB near the object, and a mark, D, in 
AB, beyond the object. Set up the instrument at B. Turn 
off some small angle, DBC = 6, and locate a mark, C, on 
one side of BD so that BDC is an estimated right angle. Or 
make BDC = 90° with the chain. Measure DC precisely 
with a tape, a rule, or with the level rod if it is handy! 



VII. PASSING OBSTRUCTIONS 



79 



71. 



DC 
Compute BD==-— 57.296. 
6 

The notation (9^ signifies that the angle ^'is to be used in 
degrees and decimals of a degree. This method is con- 
sidered as accurate as ordinary chaining when BD is less 
than 600' and 6 is read to minutes. The angle DEC should 
not exceed 1° 30' and DC should be but a few feet and 
very carefully measured. When possible take DEC some 
simple fraction of 1°. 

Passing an Object on a Straight Line with the Instru- 
ment Alone. 

Alignment. 




Set up the instrument at B. Locate EC and ED, lines mak- 
ing such equal angles with AB that they will pass the ob- 
ject. Mark a point, C, in EC so that CD, perpendicular to 
AE, will pass the object. Also mark two points in ED 
near the estimated position of D, preparatory to finding 
the intersection of CD and ED, if possible before moving 
the instrument from B. Move the instrument to C. Turn 
off BCD = ABC — 90° and mark two points near D for 
finding the intersection of CD and ED. Start the lines 



8o 



VII. PASSING OBSTRUCTIONS 



72. 



CE and CF towards AB produced, measuring and recording 
BCE and BCF. If possible mark points in these lines near 
E and F for intersection purposes. Find and mark D, the 
intersection of CD and BD. Set up the instrument at D. 
Turn off BDE = BCE and BDF = BCF. Find and mark 
E and F at the intersections of CE and DE, and of CF 
and DF. 

Check :— Measure FEC or CFE. BCE + HBC = FEC + 
CFE = ABC — BCF. Also CFE should equal DFE and 
CEF = DEF. 
In turning off the first angles use ABC and ABD and not 
HBC and HBD if starting from a backsight towards A. 
A number of points may be located in a similar manner to 
that given for E and F. They should lie in the same 
straight line. 

Passing an Object on a Straight Line by Using Natural 
Tangent of 0° 34'. 

Distance. 




Set up the instrument at A. Locate a mark, B, on the line 
beyond the object. Turn off o° 34' either way from AB 
and locate a mark, C, making ABC an estimated right 
angle. Measure BC to hundredths. Multiply this distance 
by loi and add .1 for every hundred in the result. 



VII. PASSING OBSTRUCTIONS 



Example : — BC measures 9.89. 

989 
989 



998 . 89 
1 .00 



999.89 

This shows an error of o'.ii in 1000'. 

Care must be taken in laying off the angle and in reading the 
distance, as a difference of o'.oi in the length of BC makes 
a dift'erence of I'.oi in the result, no matter what the length 
of AB may be. 



VIII. CIRCULAR CURVES WITH STEEL TAPES. 



73. Notation. 

P. I. = Point of intersection of the tangents. 
P. C. = Point of curvature, or beginning of curve. 
P. T. = Point of tangency, or end of curve. 
A = The angle subtended by the curve, or the angle be- 
tween the tangents. 
R = The length of the radius of the curve. 
T = The length of the tangents, or the distance from the 

P. I. to P. C, or from P. I. to P. T. 
D = The angle at the center of the curve subtended by a 

chord, the length of which is a station distance, 

or D ^ the degree of the curve, 
c = The chord the length of which is a station distance. 
Cq = The length of the short cord preceding P. C. on the 

curve produced back\yard. 
Ci = The length of the short chord following P. C. on the 

curve. 
Cg = The length of the short cord preceding P. T. on the 

curve. 
Cg = The length of the short chord following P. T. on the 

curve produced, 
t = The tangent offset for a station distance. 

2t = The chord offset for a station distance, 
tg = The tangent offset for a distance c^. 
ti = The tangent offset for a distance c^. 
to, = The tangent offset for a distance c,. 
tg = The tangent offset for a distance Cg. 
d = The angle at the center of the curve subtended by c. 
do = The angle at the center of the curve subtended by Cg. 
dj = The angle at the center of the curve subtended by c^^. 
do = The angle at the center of the curve subtended by c^. 
dg = The angle at the center of the curve subtended by Cg. 
a = The length of the chord offset for a distance c,. 



VIII. CIRCULAR CURVJiS WITH STEEL TAPES 



83 




Decide upon a site for P. I. Mark this point by a nail in a 
stake. Witness this point. 

Assume the direction of the tangents and mark a point on 
each by a nail in a stake. 

Measure from P. I. along the back tangent produced 20u'. 
Mark the end of this distance. Measure from P. I. along 
the forward tangent 200'. Mark the end of this distance. 
Measure between the two points last set. Call this dis- 
tance k. 

Find A/2 by sin A/2 = k/400, and 

T = R tan — 
2. 



84 VIII. ciRCuivAR CURVES WITH ste;eIv tapes 

Assume D to give curve of desired length, and find R in Table 

IV, Searle's. 
Measure from P. I. along the forward tangent a distance T 

and mark the end of this distance by a nail in a stake. 

Witness this point. Call this P. T. Be sure to get this 

point exactly on line. 
Measure from P. I. along the back tangent a distance T and 

mark the end of this distance by a nail in a stake. Witness 

this point. Call this P. C. Be careful to get it exactly 

on line. 




t from Table M Searle*' 



Mark a point on the back tangent less than loo' beyond the 
P. C. from P. I. by a nail in a stake. Call this a regular 
station on the line and give it a number as 141. Measure 
the distance from this point to P. C. This = c^. 

Compute c^, t^, and t^ . 

With sta. 141 and P. C. as centers and t„ and c^, as radii, strike 
arcs intersecting on the inside of the tangent. Mark this 
point accurately. Call it sta. 141' . 

Measure forward from P. C. along the tangent a distance Cj 
= 100' — Cq. At the end of this distance mark a point 
exactly on line. Call this sta. 142' . 

With P. C. and sta. 142' as centers, and c^ and t^ as radii, 
strike arcs intersecting inside the tangents. ^lark this 
intersection by a nail in a stake. This is sta. 142 . 



VIII. CIRCULAR CURVES WITH STEElv TAPKS 



85 



Produce the line through sta. 141' and sta. 142 for a dis- 
tance = one station (100') beyond sta. 142 . Mark a point 
here . Call it sta. 143' . 

With sta. 142 and 143' as centers, and 100' and 2t as radii, 
strike arcs intersecting on the side away from the tangents. 
Mark this point by a nail in a stake. This is sta. 143 . 

Produce a line through sta. 142 and sta. 143 for 100' beyond 
sta. 143 . Mark this point . Call this sta. 144' . With 
sta. 143 and sta. 144' as centers, and 100' and 2t as radii, 
strike arcs intersecting on the side away from the tangent, 
mark this point by a nail in a stake. This is sta. 144 . 




^Renn.= 



a=Zc, 



-K^-^) 



11= tan of tfie angia 

betwetn the original 
tangenV and th& 
ntw +ongcrrH 



Continue in this manner until one station beyond P. T. is 
set. 

Call the last station preceding P. T. 148 . 

Measure forward from sta. 148, along the chord from sta. 
147 through sta. 148, a distance Co. Mark this point . 

With sta. 148 and point last set as centers, and Co and a as 
radii, strike arcs intersecting on the side away from the 
tangent . ^Mark this intersection with a nail in a stake. 
This is P^T' . 

With P'T' and sta. 148 as centers, and c, and t„, as radii, 
strike arcs intersecting on the side toward the tangent. 
This intersection will be another point on the new tangent 
through P'T'. With P'T' and sta. 149' as centers and C., 
and tg as radii strike arcs intersecting on the side towards 
the tangent. This intersection will be another point on the 
new tangent through P'T'. The two points last set and 
P'T' should lie on a straight line. 



86 VIII. CIRCULAR CURVES WITH STEEt TAPES 

If the work could be accurately done the new tangent and 
the original one would coincide, as would also P. T. and 
P'T'. 

To get the angle between the original tangent and the new 
one, measure the perpendicular distance between the two at 
sta. 148' and at sta. 149' . If these latter points are on the 
same side of the original tangent find the difference be- 
tween them and divide it by one hundred. 

This gives the natural tangent of the angle. 

If the two points are on opposite sides of the original tan- 
gent, divide their sum by one hundred. 

Find also the distance P'T' is inside or outside of the orig- 
inal tangent, and how far back, or ahead, of P. T., P'T' 
comes. 

Make a complete record of all these items in the order in 
which the different parts were done. 

The lining in can be best done by using two plumb bobs and 
a fine staff. Always have the line staff marking the point 
farthest away from the eye. 

At the P. C. and P. T. witness, or reference, stakes should 
be set. 

These should be about i'x2'x2'.5, and should be driven 
about one foot to the side of the hub which marks the 
P. C. or P. T., facing the hub, and with the top slightly in- 
clined away from it. On the face of the stake should 
appear the station and plus of the hub, the letters P. C. 
or P. T., and L or R according as the curve is to the right 
or left. On the reverse side should appear the degree of 
the curve and the value of A . 



RC.R. 






IX. CIRCULAR CURVES WITH THE TRANSIT. 

74. Notation. 

i he same as in the circular curve with steel tapes and 

K = the middle point of the curve 

E = the distance from P. I. to K 

c^ = the length of the short chord preceding K 

d^ = the angle at the center of the curve subtended by c. 

75. Directions. 

Decide upon a site for P. I. Mark this point by a nail in a 

stake. Witness this point. 
Assume the direction of the tangents and mark a point on 

each by a nail in a stake. 
Set the transit up at P. I. and measure the angle P. C. — ■ 

P. I. — P. T. = 1 80° — A . . Record in the usual way. 
Assume D to give a curve of the desired length, and compute 

T as in the previous case. 
Measure from P. I. along the forward tangent a distance T 

and mark the end of this distance by a nail in a stake. 

Witness this point. Call this P. T. 
Compute E = T tan A/4 . 
]\Ieasure from P. I. along the bisector of the angle P. C. — - 

P. I. — P. T. a distance E . Mark the end of this distance 

by a nail in a stake. Call this point K . 
Measure along the back tangent a distance T, from P. I., 

and mark the end of this distance by a nail in a stake. 

Witness this point. Call this P. C. 
Mark a point on the back tangent less than 100' beyond P. C. 

from P. I by a nail in a stake. Call this a regular station 

on the line and give it a number, as 141. 
Measure the distance from this point to P. C. 100' minus this 

distance = c^ . 
Compute sin di/2 =: C1/2R, and find d-^/2 in the tables. 

Compute — ^ ^ — . The remainder = 6j^/2 . 

c^ =: 2R sin d;,./2 



8S 



IX. CIRCULAR CURVES WITH THE TRANSIT. 
A/2 — di/2 



D/2 

c, = 2R sin clo/2 



The remainder = do/2 




The plate readings for the P. C. will be o°oo'oo" on Ver. A, 
and i8o°oo'oo'' on Ver. B. For the plate readings for 
the next station add ^J2 to the reading of each vernier. 
Add to these D/2 for the readings for the next station, and 
so on until the readings for the station preceding K have 
been found. 

To find the plate readings for K, add to the readings for the 
last station preceding it, d^ /2. Add D/2 to the readings 
for the station preceding K, to find the readings for the 



IX. CIRCULAR CURVES WITH THE TRANSIT. 89 

station following K. By adding D/2 for each station dis- 
tance find the readings for the stations preceding P. T. 
To the readings for the last station preceding P. T. add 
d2/2 to find the readings for P. T. 

The reading for Ver. A for K should ^ A/4, and that for 
P. T. should = A/2. 

Set the transit up at P. C. Set the plates to read o'^oo'oo" 
and iSo^oo'oo". Set the Hne of sight on P. I. Release 
the plates. Set the plates at the readings for the first sta- 
tion on the curve. 

Measure from P. C. along the line thus indicated the length 
of the first short chord = c^. Mark this point by a nail 
in a stake. The stake should bear the number of the sta- 
tion, and a line mark, if necessary. 

Lines are often designated by letters, as Line L. 

Release the plates and set them at the readings for the next 
station. Measure forward from the station just set 100' 
and set a station on the line of sight, marking as before. 

Continue in this manner around the curve. Note in the field 
Note book the check at K and at P. T. 

If considerable time is consumed in running the cufve, back- 
sights should be taken from time to time upon P. I. to be 
sure that the instrument is steady. If the levels show dis- 
turbance, level up and backsight before setting any more 
points. 

If for any reason it becomes necessary to move up on the 
curve, that is, to move the transit forward along the curve, 
be especially sure that the point to which it is moved is 
correctly set. 

Move the transit and set it over the new point. Backsight 
to any other point on the curve zvith the plates set at the 
readings for the point sighted to. 

Continue setting points on the curve using the plate readings 
as prepared if the points to be set are on the same side of 
the transit as the backsight. If the points to be set are on 
the opposite side of the transit from the backsight, ex- 
change the vernier readings. 

Care should be exercised to see that the same tension is ap- 
plied to the tape at all times. 



^ 



UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN • > 

1909 — XI — 18. 

Practice survey: — Laying out a Circular Curve with 

Transit. 

Location : — Hamilton Park, Ann Arbor, Mich. 

Decide upon a site for P. I. and mark it by a nail in a sta 
driven flush with the ground near the house occupied 
the Keystone Club. Witnesses :— 

Elm 6"' S 45° ?E. 70-56 to center 

Elm 5" N 80° ?E, 42.37 to center 

Soft Maple 4" N'ly, 72.40 to center 

S. E. corner of ice-house S. 60'" ?W., 25.93 

Assumed direction of tangents and marked 
a point on each by a nail in a stake. 



At P. I. 



Ver. A. 


Ver B. 




273°38'30" 


93°38'30" 


38-30' 


73°39'30" 


253°39'3o" 




273°38'3o" 


93°38'30" 


38'30 



39'3o- 1\ 
38'30" i 



180° — A = i6o°oi'oo' 



672.^96 Measured along forward tangent 672. '96. 

Marked the end of this distance by a nail in a stake. C; 
this point P. T. Witnesses :— 

Elm 7'' N 10° ?E 25.^28 to center 
Tel. pole 12'' N 40° ?W 32.^86 to center 
Elm II'' N 50° ?E io2.'i4 to center 
Fence post 4" S 5° ?H 48/39 to center 



DEPARTMENT OF ENGINEERING 



Instruments : — 
Transit No. 8333 
100' Tape No. XX. 
50' Tape No. 21. 



Part: — • 11. 
H. E. Wright 
R. R. Roem 
H. C. Walker 
C. W. Wright 



ig back tangent 
ig forward tangent 
ig back tangent 
le 

A/2-=9°59'3o'' 



i8o°oo'oo'' 
i6o°oi'oo" 



i9°59'oo"= A 

A/4 = 4°59'45" 

Assumed D = i°3o'oo" 

T = R tan A/2 . E = T tan A/4 



A/2 = 9^54'3o" log tan 9.249491 
R = 38i9.'83 log R = 3.582044 

r = 672. '96 log T = 2.827993 

A/4 = 4°59'45" log tan _8^94i587 
£ = 58.^83 log E =^7765580 



UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN 



1909-XI-18. 



Practice Survey :— Laying out a Circular 
Curve with the Transit. 

Location :— Hamilton Park, Ann Arbor, Mich. 



at P. I. 



Ver. A. Ver. B. 

338^54' 30" i58°54'3o" 54'3o" N'ly to P. T. 

55°55'oo" 238°55'oo'' 55'oo" E'ly along 

338°54'3o'' i58°54'3o" 54'3o'' 54'3o" N'ly to P. T. 

8o°oo'3o" N'ly angle. 
58.'83 Measured along external 58.^83 from P. I. and se|l 
672.'96 Measured along back tangent 672.'96. Marked 1; 

Witnesses : — 

Elm S" W'ly 123.^17 to center. 
Apple S" S 80° ?W 1 2 1. '34 to center. 
Maple 28" S 65° ?E 251.^37 to center. 
Maple 6" N'ly I20.'62 to center. 

Set a nail in a stake on tangent less than 100' beyond P. 
sta. 100. 

43/45 Pleasured from sta. 100 to P. C. 43-'45 = ^0- 

Made up plate readings as follows: 



DEPARTMENT OF ENGINEERING. 



Instruments : — Party : — 1 1. 

Transit No. 8333. R. R. Roem. 

100' Tape No. XX. H. C. Walker. 

50' Tape No. 21. H. L. Wright. 

C. W. Wright. 



;rnal to set K. 

180^ — A 



80° 00' 30' 



larked K by a nail in a stake, 
of this distance by a nail in a stake. Called this point P. C. 



i 

a P. I. to mark last regular station on tangent. Called this 

100/00 — Cg = 56^55 = q. sin di/2 = C1/2R. 

Ci =56/55 log 1.752433 

2R =7639.^66 colog 6.1 16926 



di/2 = o°25'27'' log sin 7.869359 
A/4-d,/2 
Remainder from = 04' 18" = d;^ /2, 

D/2 



UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN 

1909 — XI — 27. 

Practice Survey :— Laying out a Circular Curve with 
Transit. 

Location :— Hamilton Park, Ann Arbor, Mich. 



9-59-30" i89°59'3o" 113 + 75-65 P'T'. Found 

9°25'2/' i89°25'27" 113 

8°40'2/' i88°4o'27'' 113 

7°55^27" i87°55'27'' m 

7°io'27'' i87°io'27" no 

6°25'27" i86°25'27'' 109 

5°40'27'' i85°4o'27'' 108 ^ 

4°59'45" i84°59'45" 107 + 09.56 K'. Found K' , 

4°55'27" i84°55'27" 107 

4°io'27'' i84°io'27" 106 

3°25'27" i83°25'27" 105 

2°4o'27'' i82°4o'27'' 104 

i°55'27'' i8i°55'27" 103 

i°io'27" i8i°io'27'' 102 

0°25'27" l8o°25'27'' lOI 

o°oo'oo" i8o°oo'oo" 100 + 4345- P. C. i°3o'C.R. 



DEPARTMENT OF ENGINEERING. 



Instruments : Party : — 1 1. 

Transit No. 8333. R. R. Roem. 

100' Tape No. XX. H. C. Walker. 

50' Tape No. 21. C. W. Wright. 

H. L. Wright. 



I 



A/2 — di/2 

Remainder from = 34'o4" = d„/2. 

D/2 

c^ =2Rsind^/2 Co = 2Rsin d2/2. 

2R =7639.66 log 3-883074- 
d^ /2 = 04'i8'' log sin 7.097195. 

c^ =9-56 log 0.980269. 



behind and .'\j inside of P. T 

2R =7639.66 log 3-883074. 

d2/2 = 34'o4" log sin 7.995836. 



C2 =75-67 log 1.878910. 

id and .'2}^ inside of K. 

A = i9°59'oo". 
T = 672.96. 
E =58.83. 
L = 1332.22. 

F 

= i9°59'oo". 



X. TRAVERSING. 



FlULDWORK. 



11. Outfit. 

Transit. 
Measuring set. 
Two line staves. 
Axe, stakes, and nails. 
Examine the articles as issued, or be liable for defects found 
upon their return. 

78. Directions. 

A field with seven sides, and one reentrant angle. No side 
less than 500 feet. To enclose from 30 to 40 acres. 

79. Stake out the field. 

Designate the stakes by A, B, C, D, E, F, and G. 

Record a description of each stake, and its general location, 
under its letter, in the notebook. Take four, or more, 
witnesses to each stake. Record these witnesses with de- 
scription of stake. 

80. Forms of record. 

Field of seven sides situated between Packard street and the 
Ann Arbor railroad south of Hill street, and north of the 
E. & W. 1/4 line of Section 32, T. 2 'S. R. 6 E. Mer. of 
Mich. A, B, C, D, E, F, G, designate the vertices of the 
angles in the boundaries of this field. 

O A. Is a nail in a stake driven flush with the ground, stand- 
ing on the third prominent ridge N. of the Detroit Obser- 
vatory, Ann Arbor, Mich., from which a 

Witnesses. Hickory, 12'' in diameter, bears N. about 55° E., 
72". 3 to its center, and a 

B. Walnut 2J" bears S. about 35° E. 261 '.4 to cen. 



X. tra\'£;rsing 97 

Spike in root of Sycamore 32", S. about 45^ W. 47'. 13. 
Spike E. face of brick wall near S.E. corner of barn, N.W'ly 
34' -27. 



Field notes of traverse to read from bottom of page 
upzi'ard. 

81. Measure the sides. 

Measure down hill. 

As each measurement is made enter it in the sixth column 
of the record on the line with the note in the third column, 
showing in which direction the measurment proceeded. 
See form of record following. 

82. Instrument work. 

Set up the transit at any station, as A. 

Backsight to G by means of either clamp and show motion 
screw, the other clamp being clamped. 

Read both plate verniers. Record these readings in the two 
left hand columns of the field notes at the bottom of the 
page, with a note in the third column that the pointing is 
from A to G, — all as shown in the form of notes. 

Take another look at the verniers and backsight, to make 
sure the pointing is exact and the vernier readings cor- 
rectly recorded. 

Release the plate clamp. 

Set the line of sight on the mark at B by means of the plate 
clamp and slow motion screw. 

Read both plate verniers. Record these readings in the 
fourth and fifth columns of the notes on the next line above 
the last entry, with a note in the third column that the 
pointing is from A to B. 

Release the plate clamp. Set the line of sight again on A G 
by means of the plate clamp and slow motion screw. 

Read both plate verniers. See if these readings agree suffi- 
ciently well with those when the first pointing A to G was 
made. If not, repeat the work till they will. Record these 



98-' X. TRAVERSING 

readings in the two left hand columns of the notes on the 
line next above the last entry, with a note, in the third 
column that the pointing is from A to G. 

Again direct the telescope to B, and set up a picket behind 
the eyepiece, facing B, — if pickets are used. 

Move the transit and set it up at B. 

Set the plate verniers at the same readings they had when 
the pointing was from A to B, — each vernier at its orig- 
inal reading, — do not exchange them. 

Set the line of sight on A, by means of the spindle clamp 
and slow motion screw. 

Read both plate verniers. Record these readings in the first 
and second columns of the notes, with a note in the third 
column showing the pointing to be from B to A. 

Leave one space blank between these and the last previous 
entries. 

Compare these entries in the first and second columns with 
the last previous ones in the fourth and fifth columns. If 
they are not the same, or as nearly so as can be, repeat 
the setting of the plate verniers and the pointing from B 
to A, till these records agree. 

Look once more at the verniers, and be sure they read cor- 
rectly. Also notice the pointing and make sure it is exact. 

Release the plate clamp. 

Set the line of sight on C, by means of the plate clamp and 
slow motion screw. 

Read both plate verniers. Record these readings in the 
fourth and fifth columns of the notes on the next line above 
the last entries, with a note in the third columns showing 
the pointing to be from B to C. 

Release the plate clamp. Set the line of sight again on A 
by means of the plate clamp and slow motion screw. 

Read both plate verniers. See if these readings agree suffi- 
ciently well with those when the first pointing B to A was 
made. If not, repeat the work till they will. Record 
these readings in the two left hand columns of the notes 
on the line next above the last entry, with a note in the 
third column that the pointing is from B to A. 



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X. pe;g luveivS. long circuit 99 

Again direct the telescope to C, and set up a picket behind 
the eyepiece, facing C, — if pickets are used. 

Move the transit and set it up at C. 

Repeat the same operations there, using first the plate read- 
ings obtained when sighting from B to G. Proceed in this 
way around the field until the transit is set up at G. When 
the plate readings for the pointing G to A are recorded, 
they should be the same as the plate readings when the 
pointing A to G was taken, with the readings exchanged 
between the verniers. If this is not the case review the 
work and correct the errors. 

In a field with an even number of sides the readings will not 
he exchanged between the verniers. 



X. PEG LEVELS. LONG CIRCUIT. 

FiLlvDWORK. 

83. Outfit. 

Level. 

Leveling rod. 

Axe. Pegs. Piece of chalk. 
Examine the articles as issued, or be liable for defects found 
upon their return. 

84. Directions. 

Run peg levels from the U. S. Geol. Sur. B. M. — El. 874.976, 
— in the south door of the Mechanical Laboratory and 
find the elevation of some other B. M. a mile, or so, away, 
and involving from 18 to 30 settings of the level, due to 
the distance, or difference in elevation. Make the record 
show the closing error, and the discrepancies peg by peg, 
if practicable. Follow the instructions for peg levels given 
under V. 



XI. COMPUTING AND PLATTING TRAVERSE. 

ofi^ice; work. 

■85. Outfit. 

Field notes of traverse survey. 

86. Traverse Angles. 

Beginning in the central part of the notes, check off either 
vernier reading for the traverse angle of the side along 
which the forward pointing was made, that is, in those 
columns marked "Foresights." Proceeding each way from 
this traverse angle check off vernier readings, alternately 
in "Ver. A" column and "Ver. B" column, for the for- 
ward pointings along the several lines, till a traverse angle 
is marked for each side of the survey. 

87. Prepare book. 

Make eight columns, about an inch and a quarter wide, across 
the open field note, book, using the following headings : 
Trav. Ang. Dist. -\- s — .y -[~ ^ — c x y. 

88. Enter notes in above form. 

Enter in the first column the traverse angles checked off in 
the field notes, and in the second column on the same line 
with each traverse angle, the length of the side to which 
it belongs. Leave a blank above each entry. 

89. Compute the traverses, s and c. 
A = traverse angle of any side. 

d = length of the side A belongs to, — always plus. 

Signs of sin. A and cos. A are according to the quadrant in 
which A ends. 

Compute zt s = d sin. A. 
and ± c ^ dcos. A. 



73, 



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XI. COMPUTING AND PI^ATTING TRAVE;RSE; IOI 

Sample computation. 

s c 

2.528274 337-50 2.528274 

9.820774 41° 26' 30" 9.874847 
2.349048 2.403 12 1 

+223.38 +253-00 

Take out the results to the second decimal place, only. 
Enter these values of .y and c in their proper columns against 

the values of d from which they came. 
Find 2 .? and 2 c. Both should equal zero. 

Errors. 

In case the difference from zero of 2 j' and 2 c is large, 

review all the figures from the checking otT of the vernier 

readings, and correct all errors found. 
If the difference from zero is still large, review, and verify, 

the work in the field. 
When the errors are found and corrected 2 .? and 2 c will 

nearly equal zero. 

Balancing traverses. 

Find and correct all errors that can be found, and bring 2 .S" 
and 2 c as nearly to zero as practicable before applying 
any corrections. 

Compute the corrections for any traverse by the following 
equations : 

For the sine traverses. 

For the cosine traverses, 

±Cc=^d 

Use the different values of d in succession to obtain the cor- 
rections for the traverse of the various sides. Subtract 
these corrections from the traverses to which they apply, 
observing all signs. 



I02 XI. COMPUTING AND PLATTING TRAVERSE 

Enter the corrected values of the traverses in the blank 
spaces above the traverses as first computed. Draw neat 
pencil marks through the former values. 

Find 2 .y and 2 c anew, using the corrected traverses. They 
may still not quite equal zero. In this case apply any 
small remaining errors to the traverses of one or more of 
those sides the field data for which is most open to sus- 
picion of being erroneous. In case there are no such sides 
apply the final corrections to the traverses of the longest 
side, or sides. 

By repeating the first corrections a second or even a third 
time, in the case of some very poor work, and by distrib- 
;'. uting the small remaining errors as above directed, finally 

bring 2 ^ and 2 c, both to actual zero. 

92. Computing coordinates, x and y. 

Observe all signs carefully. 

Find the sum of the sine traverses to the end of each side of 
the field in succession, for the values of x. Similarly, sum 
the cosine traverses for the values of y. The last x and 
the last y must be zero. 

93. Prepare book. 

Make four columns about two inches wide, two on each 
page of the open field note book, using the following 
headings : 

^D.A. —D.A. -\-D.A. —D.A. 
D. A. means double area. 

Compute : 

D.A. = ^—Xn (Cn+Cn + i) 

= :s-t-y„ (^n + -yn + i) 

= :§ Cn (.Vn — 1 + -^"n) 

= S + ^n (yn — i+.Yn) 

= S + A'n (Vn + 1 — 3'n — 1) 

= :S + Vn (-^n + 1 — -^n — i ) 



COMPUTATIQN S^^RELATIMG TO A CT.O^jM^^^T^pwEV. 

^SXMMOLICAL TABLE 



TRAV 
ANGLE 



DIST. 




Wh e n CQ-rr-ec/ed 



E S^O 



L C = O 



Observe a /I Signs 



IfX ' a 



X = a-z s 



Plat IS mou 



hy roordiri i 




Sum of entries in any double area column 
eaua/s doud/e area of piece Use two columns. 



XI. COMPUTING AND PLATTING TRAVERSE 103 

Observe all signs carefully. 

Use two of these forms. 

Enter the results obtained by the two different forms, on 
the two different pages, the -\- results in the -\- D. A. col- 
umns and the — results in the — ■ D. A. columns. 

Do not use logarithms in these computations of D. A., but 
natural numbers. Take both decimals in all the values 
of s, c, X, and y, thus giving four decimals in each product. 

Sum the products on each page for the double area of the 
field. These sums must be identical out to the last right 
hand figure. 

Divide the double area by 2 to get the area of the field. Re- 
duce the area to acres. 

95. Directions. Platting. 

Each person make a plat of the traversed field, on cross ruled 

paper. See Sec. 10. 
Select the origin and axes of coordinates. Assume a scale. 
Count off the coordinates of A, B, C, &c., and mark them on 

the paper. 
Measure A to B, B to C, &c., to scale on the paper. See if 

these measures agree with those made on the ground. If 

not, correct the platting. 
Join A and B, B and C, &c., by plain black lines, not too 

broad. 
Complete the plat according to the instructions in Sec. 10. 
Fasten the plat in the field note book to the stub of a cut 

out leaf. 
The axis of Y is the reference line and the -|- direction is 0° 

for the traverse angles. If the plate readings that were 

not checked had been taken as the traverse angles the o*^ 

would have been in the opposite direction. 



XI. PROFILE LEVELING. 

FIELD WORK. PARTY OP" FOUR PERSONS. 

96. Outfit. 

Transit. 

Measuring set. 

Two line staves. 

Axe. 30 or 35 stakes. 3 or 4 plugs. Nails. Marking 

chalk. 
Levels, — 2. 

Leveling measuring rods, 2. 
Axe. Pegs, — about 50. 
Examine the articles as issued, or be liable for defects found 
upon their return. 

97. Directions. 

On rough ground select a place where a straight line about 

3000 ft. long can be laid out, and either end of it seen from 
■ the other. 

Drive a plug with nail in same, to mark the end of the line 
where the measuring is to begin, — ^or zero end. 
Witness this plug. Record full information about it. 
Mark a stake with the line mark and the numeral o. 
Drive this stake about a foot to the right of the plug, as the 

line will run, with the marks facing away from the other 

end of the line. 
Set up the transit over the nail in this plug. 
Drive another plug with nail to mark the line near its other 

end. 
Witness this plug. Record full information about it. 
Hold up a line staff on the nail in this plug. 
Set the line of sight of the transit on the line staff. 
Take away the line staff. 
Set a picket in line beyond the distant plug, — or any suitable 

mark to keep the line by, — or find some object in exact 

line to be used to sight to for line. 



XI. PROFILE LEVELING 105 

Hold Up the line staff again, on the nail in the distant plug. 

See if the cross wire bisects it exactly. If not, review the 
work and correct the errors, till sure the distant mark is 
in exact line. 

Call back the line staff'. 

Watch the transit while laying out the line ; by frequent ref- 
erences to the distant mark for line ; by looking at the 
plate levels to see that the bubbles read level, especially the 
one parallel to the transit axis ; and occasionally examin- 
ing the plumb bob to see if it keeps exactly over the nail 
in the plug. 

Measure 100 ft. from the nail under the transit in the direc- 
tion the line is to go. 

Get line at the end of the 100 ft. with the line staff. 

Mark a stake with the line mark and the numeral i. 

Drive this stake at the end of the 100 ft. on the line, and 
with the marks facing the plug where the transit stands. 

Drive the stake so it stands plum and is firmly set. 

Test it for line and distance. Correct it for either, or both, 
by pounding the ground close beside the stake, but leave 
it plumb and firm. Move it if necessary. 

Measure again and mark 100 ft. on top of the stake. 

Get line on the stake at the end of the 100 ft. 

Drive a small nail in the top of the stake to mark station i 
at just 100 ft. from station o, — the nail under the transit, 
— and in line. 

Measure on 100 ft. beyond i and set and mark 2 with the 
same care and precautions used at i. 

Continue setting stakes in this- manner until the whole line 
is marked or some place is reached where it becomes nec- 
essary to move up the transit in order to see to give line 
for the stakes. 

Choose a place for a new transit plug from which the dis- 
tant line mark can be seen and also the succeeding stakes 
to be set. 

Look over the transit and see that it is over the nail, is level, 
and the line of sight is on the distant mark. 

Give line for the new plug. 



io6 XI. profile; leveling 

While the plug is being driven look the transit over again 
for position, level, and line, and be ready to give line at 
once. 

Get line on the plug with the line staff. 

Mark the place. 

Take away the line staff. 
I See that the line of sight strikes the distant mark. 

If not, review the work and correct the errors until it will. 

Signal "All right." 

Drive a nail, not quite down, at the mark on the plug. 

Call up the transit. 

While the transit is coming, measure the plus from the pre- 
ceding stake and record this plus and any other informa- 
tion about the plug. 

Mark a stake with the line mark and station number and 
plus for this plug, and drive it about a foot to the right 
of the plug. 

Set up the transit over the nail in the new plug. 

Set its line of sight on the distant mark. 

Measure lOO ft. from the last regular station set, not the 
transit plug, if at a plus, and continue setting stakes, as 
before. 

Continue marking the line somewhat beyond the last dis- 
tinctive depression, or rise, on the line, even if it is a few 
hundred feet more than 3000 ft. long. 

This is the manner of marking what is called a "Located 
line" in Leveling and Earthwork. 

Divide into parties of two persons. 

Find, or make, a B. M. at each end of the line. 

Record full decription of these benches. 

Find, by peg levels, the elevation of one of them, say the 
one at the zero end of the line, or assume an elevation 
for it. 

With one of the levels begin leveling from the B. M. at the 
zero end of the line, following the instructions given in 
Leveling and Earthwork in sections i to 13. Section 10 
gives special instructions about Location Levels, such as 
these should be. 



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XI. PROFILE LEVELING 107 

With the other level, begin leveling from the B. M. at the 
other end of the line following the same instructions ex- 
cept omitting all elevations. 

When the two levelers meet, the leveler from the far end 
of the line take a precise rod reading on some T. P. or 
B. ]\I. whose elevation has been found by the party that 
began at the zero end of the line. 

Party No. 2 work out all of their elevations. 

Both parties continue leveling till each has covered the whole 
line and all the benches. 

Both parties run "Check Levels" between all the benches, — ■ 
see section 13 of Leveling and Earthwork. 

Taking the B. M. at the zero end of the line to be correct, 
both parties reduce the corrected elevations for all the 
benches. 

Take the half sum of these elevations of bench marks found 
by each party as their corrected elevations. 

Correct all the elevations of stations, plusses, and turning 
points, between benches to conform to the corrected eleva- 
tions of the benches. 

Agree upon the corrected elevations of every place where a 
rod reading was taken. If unable to agree at first, both 
repeat enough of the work on the ground to reach an 
agreement. 

The result will be the corrected levels for this line from 
which the profile is to be made. 



XII. PROFILE AND GRADE LINE. 



OFFICE WORK. 

Each person prepare a profile of the 3000 ft. Hne of levels. 
With advice of teachers, each person fix upon a grade line 

on profile and work out all elevations of grade, including 

vertical curves. 
Follow the instructions in sections 14 to 22 of Leveling anrl 

Earthwork. 



XII. STAKING OUT A GRADE. 

98. Information. 

If the last mentioned survey, profile, and grade line, were 
for a railway, highway, or similar construction, follow 
Leveling and Earthwork, from section 23 on. 

For a canal the work of staking out is similar to that for a 
railway but the cross sections maye be more extended, es- 
pecially where the canal is enclosed by banks, or where the 
spoil banks are staked out. However no additional prin- 
ciples are involved more than are given in Leveling and 
Earthwork. 

In making surveys for any excavation over a considerable 
area, as for a large building, an artificial pond, or f,or 
grading, follow the instructions for Borrow Pits given in 
sections 41 and 45 in Leveling and Earthwork. For filling 
a piece of ground the work is similar. Stakes, or poles, 
should be set over the area to be filled, as needed, with 
tops sufficiently above the finished grade to allow for set- 
tlement, see Sec. 57 in Leveling and Earthwork. 



XII. STAKING OUT A GRADE; IO9 

A survey for a dam, or a similar structure, involves a contour 
map of the site, as well as a survey similar to that for a 
railway for a short distance, namel3^ along the dam itself. 
If an earth, or rock fill, dam, is to be built the slope on 
the upstream side may be as flat as i on 3, while the slope 
on the face may be i on 2. The whole site for the dam 
should be covered by borings close enough and carried deep 
enough, not only to reveal suitable materials for supporting 
the dam and that will hold back the water from beneath it, 
but also to reveal any pockets there may be of materials 
that may prove dangerous. The borings may need to be 
extended much beyond the site of the dam itself. Fre- 
quently not enough borings are made. This is true for 
any heavy structure. Such should not be undertaken until 
the knowledge of the materials below ground is as com- 
plete and as trustworthy, as the knowledge of those on 
the surface. The borings may have to be as close as 5 ft. 
by 5 ft., in extreme cases. Borings should be surveyed 
and mapped. Then profiles of any materials below he 
surface can be made out and grades, or sub-grades, fixed 
upon. In the case of the dam, the contour survey and map 
may be extended up stream as far as the pond will reach 
to give the pondage. 

For a heavy building, the remarks about borings apply. 

The same is true for chimneys, towers, bridge abutments or 
piers, and any similar structure. 

]\Ien do not always remember that the load on any structure, 
as well as the weight of the structure itself, must at last 
rest on the ground, and that the ground will not in all in- 
stances carry "anything." Still more frequently is it for- 
gotten or disregarded, that the load on each square foot 
of the materials beneath a structure should be proportion- 
ed to the carrying capacity of these materials, if uniform 
settlement is to be expected. Especially is this true in 
building where footings beneath posts and piers are made 
too large for those under the walls. The walls settle more 
than the piers, floors go out of level, and machines and 
shafting are thrown out of level. All this may require the 



I lO XII. STAKING OUT A GRADE 

various materials upon which a structure of considerable 
extent is to rest to be uncovered so as to be examined by 
the engineer and perhaps tests made by applying actual 
loads to ascertain the amounts and rates of settlement. 

In staking out a grade, set the stakes where they will be con- 
venient for reference by the workmen, where they will not 
be dug up or covered, where they will stant! firm, and be 
secure from disturbance. The same stakes can sometimes 
be used for both line and grade, as the "Track centers" on 
a railway, or those set for a ditch or pipe trench. 

On any kind of a ditch, or pipe trench, decide upon -Iiich 
side of it the excavated materials shall be placed, so as to 
leave the other side clear, for access of men, for materials, 
and for any work that may be required. Fix upon a berm, 
or the width of a space, between the excavated materials 
and the side of the ditch or trench. The berm will depend 
upon the nature of the materials to be raoved, the depth 
of the digging, the side slope of the work, the weather to 
be expected, and whether curbing is to be used, or not. 
Set the grade stakes within this berm. — near its outer edge; 
If practicable. If the same stakes are used for both line 
and grade the transit work and leveling must go on to- 
gether. Decide upon a distance between the center line 
of the work as marked on the ground, and a line parallel 
therto where stakes are to be set by the transit with nails 
in their tops to mark this parallel line for the use of the 
workmen. Make this distance~even feet, or some simple 
number, whenever practicable. Give the workmen sticks 
cut to this distance. This distance may have to be differ- 
ent on dififerent parts of the work. 



XII. STAKING OUT A GRADE. 

FIELD WORK. PARTY OF FOUR. 

99. Outfit. 

Transit. 

JNIeasuring set. 

Line staff. 

Axe. 2." X 2" stakes. ?^" x 2" stakes. Nails. Marking 

chalk. 
Level. 

Leveling rod. 
Axe. Pegs. 
Examine the articles as issued or be liable for defects found 
upon their return. 

100. Directions. 

A tile drain, a pipe trench, a ditch, or a walk. 

Stakes to be set for both line and grade. 

Square out a line with the transit from the center line at 
some station, or transit plug, on it. 

Drive a 2" x 2" stake on this squared out line at the distance 
of the parallel line from the center line. 

Drive this stake till it stands plumb and firm. 

Drive a small nail in the top of the stake at exact line and 
distance. 

]\Iark this stake with the number of the transit point, or mark 
another %" x 2" stake with this number and drive it about 
a foot to the right of the first. 

Set another 2" x 2" stake, measured, lined, and marked, in 
the same way from some other station or transit plug on 
the center line. 

Run, measure and mark, with 2" x 2" stakes and nails, giv- 
ing the stakes the same numbers as the stations on the cen- 
ter line opposite which they stand, a line parallel to the 
center line, based on the two stakes and nails first set. 



112 XII. STAKING OUT A GRADE 

Check the measurement from one of these stakes first set, 
by measuring the closing distance to the other. If the 
measurement is not near enough correct, review the work 
and correct the errors. 

Set up the level. Find H. I. by taking a rod reading on a 
B. M. 

Decide how high above grade the top of any 2." x 2." stake 
on the line parallel to the center line shall be. 

Add this height to the elevation of grade at that place. 

Subtract this sum from H. I. for rod reading on the 2" x 2" 
stake. 

Drive the 2" x 2" stake till the rod gives this reading when 
held up on it. The target may be set at once at the read? 
ing, if a target rod is used. 

Use the same distance above grade for as long a run as prac- 
ticable. 

Use numbers that will reduce to simple terms in feet and 
inches. 

Reduce the decimal of the rod reading to inches. 

Mark the height in feet and inches of the top of the 2" x 2" 
stake above grade, on that stake, or on the witness stake 
beside it. 
* Do the same for each 2" x 2" stake at the time it is being 
set by the transit party. 

Sometimes on a marsh all the grade stakes for a ditch can 
be set at the same height above grade. Do this where 
practicable, and give the workmen sticks cut to this height. 



XII. STAKING OUT A GRADE. 

101. Information. 

In grading or paving, a street, stakes must be set as needed 
and not too many set at one time. Enough of them must 
be set to define the cross section of the street plainly for 
the workmen. This may mean as many as seven lines of 
grade stakes to be carried along the street. 



XII. STAKIXG OUT A GRADE II 3 

In some street gutters four or five lines of grade stakes may 
be needed on a seemingly narrow strip of ground. 

Grade stakes for curbs, either on streets or elsewhere, are 
troublesome to keep in place because they must be set close 
to the curb trench, and be used for line also. Drive two 
long stakes a little back from the trench, if practicable, 
and securely nail to them a strip of wood pointing cross 
wise of the curb and extending to its work edge, face, or 
corner. Make the end of the stick line and the bottom of 
it grade. Some times pieces of iron pipe 4 ft. long, or 
more, can be used for curb grades. Set the top to grade 
and the outer side parallel to line of curb. 

Sidewalk grades in a built up district in a city oftentimes may 
be marked on watertables, stone steps, window sills, or by 
spikes or nails in the joints of brick work. 

Grade stakes for concrete floors may be small and left in the 
concrete. They should be set as needed, with their tops 
to grade. 

For grades for buildings, see XIII. 



XIII. STRAIGHT LINE. 



INI^ORMATION. 



102. Rem. A straight line may be run by fore sights or by back 
and fore sights. By fore sights marks are set in Hne with 
the instrument point and another before it. By back and 
fore sights marks are set in hne with the instrument point 
and another back of it. This last is much the better way 
and is one commonly used. 

The plate must be level. Keep sharp watch of the plate level 
parallel to the transit axis. 

103. By Fore Sights. Set up the transit over a mark on the 
line. Set the line of sight on a mark on the line in the di- 
rection in which the line is to go. Give line for a mark, 
as a nail in a plug, beyond the sight mark where it can 
be seen from the sight mark. While the plug is being 
driven see if the point of the plumb bob hangs to the mark 
beneath the transit, see if the plate levels read level, and 
see if the line of sight strikes the sight mark. Correct the 
setting of the transit in any, or all, of these particulars, 
and be ready to give line as soon as the plug is driven. 
With one more look at the plate level parallel to the transit 
axis and to see that the line of sight strikes the sight mark, 
give line for a mark on the plug. See if the line of sight 
strikes the sight mark. If not, repeat these operations 
until it will. Give the signal "All right." Release the 
spindle clamp. Reverse the transit on its spindle and transit 
axis. Level it if needed. 'Set the line of sight 
upon the sight mark. Locate a second mark beside the first 
with the same tests. Drive a small nail equidistant from 
the two marks located. The nail will be on the line. 

Set up transit over the sight mark. Use the new mark 
as a sight mark, and continue the line as before. 



XIII. STRAIGHT LINE II 5 

104. By Back and Fore Sights. Set up the transit over a mark 
on the hne. Set the line of sight on a mark on the hne in 
the direction opposite to that in which the hne is to go. 
Reverse the telescope on the transit axis and give hne for 
a mark in advance, as a nail in a plug. While the plug 
is being driven, see that the point of the plumb bob hangs 
to the mark under the transit, see if the plate levels read 
level, and reverse the telescope on the transit axis and see 
if the line of sight strikes the back sight mark. Correct 
the setting of the transit in any, or all, of these particulars, 
and be ready to give line as soon as the plug is driven. 
With one more look at the plate level parallel to the transit 
axis and to see that the line of sight strikes the back sight 
mark, reverse the telescope on the transit axis and give 
line for a mark on the plug. Reverse the telescope on the 
transit axis. See if the line of sight strikes the back sight 
mark. If not, repeat these operations until it will. Give 
the signal "All right."" Release the spindle clamp. Re- 
verse the transit on its spindle. Level it if needed. Re- 
verse the telescope on the transit axis. Set the line of 
sight on the back sight mark. Reverse the telescope on 
the transit axis and locate a second mark beside the first, 
with the same tests. Drive a small nail equidistant from 
the two marks located. The nail will be on the line. 
Set up the transit at the new mark. Use the one where it 
stood for a back sight mark and continue the line as be- 
fore. 
If the two marks located by either of these methods, as above 
directed are not at the same distance from the transit, tht^ 
nail must be driven midway between them. By doing this 
the first two marks may be at some distance apart along 
the line, and in case the second mark comes ofif of the plug 
set to receive them, a stake may be driven to receive it far 
enough back, or forward, of the plug, to admit another 
plug between, without disturbing either, and the nail be 
driven therein. This will sometimes save considerable 
time. 



Il6 XIII. STRAIGHT LINi; 

If the transit is considerably out of adjustment it may take 
a wide plug to receive both of the first marks. 

If the second of the first two marks comes off of the plug 
but so close to it that the nail will come on the plug, shove 
a stout peg into the ground beside the plug, to receive the 
second mark. This saves time. 

105. Rem. In running a straight line use pickets, or sight marks 
of some kind, for back sighting to. This is better than a 
line staff, held by a "Back flag man" and may save the ser- 
vices of such a person. 

Where a short sight cannot be avoided use a nail, point of a 
plumb bob, a pencil point, or some similar smal: thing to 
sight to, either forward or backward. The nail and paper 
mark is a good one, only use a small nail. 

When sights must be short and obstructions in the way use 
a plumb line, of suitable length and fineness to sight to. 
It may be held steady by sticking the line staff, or a long 
stake, in the ground obliquely, and grasping it high enough 
up with the hand holding the plumb line. By changing 
the inclination of the staff the bob may be held over a 
mark or brought into line from the transit. 

When running a straight line, set one pair of opposite leveling 
screws on the line. The other pair will then stand across 
the line, and in the best position for keeping the plate level 
tube parallel to the transit axis reading level. Thir, level 
tube is the more important of the two, in this work. It 
should be closely watched and kept reading level. After 
using the leveling screws for this purpose the reference 
sight must be repeated. 

XIII. STRAIGHT LINE. 

Fli;ivD WORK. 

106. Outfit. 
Transit. 
Line staff. 

Axe. 6 plugs. 5 pickets. Nails. 



XIII. STRAIGHT LINE II7 

Examine the articles as issued, or be liable for defects found 
upon their return. 

107. Directions. 

Select a place open to the sky, where a straight line can be 

run for from a half a mile to a mile, and all the pickets be 

seen from the last plug, as across a valley. 
Set live or six plugs, not less than 500 ft. apart. 
Use the Back and Fore Sight method. 
If possible refer the line to some distant mark, or object, 

in the rear. 
Set up the transit where it is proposed to place the first plug. 

Back sight to the distant mark. 
Reverse the telescope on the transit axis and see it the line 

of sight ranges along the ground where it is pri^posed to 

lay out the line. 
If not, shift the transit until it fits this range. 
Drive the first plug and nail in it accordingly. Leave a 

picket there. 
Set up the transit over this first nail. 
Back sight to the distant mark, or place one 500 ft. or more, 

to the rear for this purpose. 
Set the second plug and nail not less than 500 ft. ahead on 

line by the back and foresight method. Leave a picket 

at the station over which the transit stands. 
Set up the picket behind the eyepiece, so it will stand firm. 
Put the plumb bob in a pocket, and draw away the transit 

without disturbing the picket. 
Set up the transit over the second nail. 
Back sight to the picket at the first plug, and set a third 

plug and nail not less than 500 ft. ahead on line, as before. 

Leave a picket there. 
Set up the picket at the second plug behind the eyepiece and 

move the transit to the third nail. 
Set up the transit over the third nail. 
Continue the line as before until five or six plugs ai-d nails 

have been set in the manner indicated, always backsight- 

ing to the last picket even if all the others can be seen. 



Il8 XIII. STAKING OUT A BUILDING 

Set up the transit over the last nail. 

Back sight to the most distant picket, or mark. 

See how near, by estimation, the vertical cross wire comes 
to bisecting each picket in the order of their numbers, i, 2. 
3, 4, &c. Focus the objective sharply on each picket. 

Record the distance, as estimated, that the line of sight strikes 
away from the line of each picket, showing whether it is 
to the right (R) or left (L) as the line was run. 

See if the line of sight still strikes the most distant mark. 

If not, repeat the observations till it will and correct the rec- 
ord to conform to the final result. 

Release the spindle clamp. 

Reverse the transit on its spindle. 

Reverse the telescope on its transit axis. 

Level the transit, if needed. 

Set the line of sight on the most distant mark, and repeat 
the observations, as before. 

Record the results of these observations beside those first ob- 
tained. 

Calling deviations to the R. -\-, and those to the h. — , add 
with their signs the results of both observations at each 
picket, divide by 2 to get the actual deviation of the line of 
sight at each picket. 

Record these final results, showing which is R. and which L,. 
beside the other records for each picket. 

This gives a demonstration of the trustworthiness of the 
method and the precision with which the whole work has 
been done. 



XIII.. STAKING OUT A BUILDING. 

INFORMATION. 

108. Rem. 

A building of any considerable size, or of an irreg- 
ular plan, can be more accurately, and cheaply, staked out 
with a transit and measuring set and a level and leveling 
rod than in any other way. Besides the work will be more 
trustworthy. 



XIII. STAKING OUT A BUILDING II9 

Examine the plans critically for errors in dimensions, — all 
of the plans, not merely the foundation plan. See that the 
sum of the interior dimensions plus the thickness of walls 
equals the exterior dimensions, everywhere, and in every 
way, across every part of the building. Record, in full, the 
results of this examination in the note book, whether er- 
rors and omissions are found, or not. If errors, or omis- 
sions, are found report them and refuse to begin staking 
out until the errors are corrected, and all omissions supplied 
so all the dimensions can be fully verified. 

Examine the clcvntions and sections for the location of all 
grades, such as sub foundations, footings, watertables, 
ground surfaces, or any other thing whose height must 
be known. See if the figures agree. Record, in full, the 
results of this examination. Report all defects, deficiencies, 
errors, or discrepancies, and refuse to begin staking out 
until they are all properly taken care of. 

Ask for all needed explanations. On any important building 
all corrections, changes, additions, or explanations should 
be given in writing, or be made on the plans. If this is 
not done, enter in the note book, at once, all such verbal in- 
formation, with the date, and source, or authority. 

Be particular not to begin staking out until all the plans, and 
such parts of the specifications as relate to the location, 
levels for, and dimensions of, the building are fully and 
completely understood. The specifications and plans 

should agree, or be made to agree, upon these matters. 

Too frequently not enough care is taken to make certain re- 
garding the matters above referred to. 

Too frequently the engineer is asked to stake out a building 
in a "Rush."" This he should refuse to do, unless he 
knows the plans and specifications thoroughly before hand, 
or is relieved of all responsibility for the results of his 
work by a wi'itten and signed release. An engineer should 
never forget that the word "Rush" stands for mistakes, 
blunders, trouble, and dissatisfaction, and act accordingly. 

Some line on the building should be designated as the one 
to be staked out. In a masonry building this may be the 



I20 



XIII. STAKING OUT A BUILDING 



brick line, the face of the water table, the face of the foun- 
dation wall above ground, or any similar one. In a wood- 
en building if may be the face of the foundation wall, the 
outside of the frame, or a similar one. There should be 
room enough on the line boards for laying off spaces for 
lines for everything outside of the line staked out. Such 
are watertable, foundation walls, and footings. The same 
should be true on the inside of the building. There should 
be room for the thickness of walls, for footings and the 
like. 

Some line on the building should be designated as the one 
for which the leveler will give the elevation. In a frame 
building this is commonly the top of the foundation Avail. 
In a masonry building the top of the first floor joists is 
used, also the top of the water table, the top of the finished 
foundation wall, or some similar line. The builder can be 
accomodated in making this selection but there should 
be a record to show unmistakably what line was used, and 

. its relation to other lines on the building. 



XIIL. STAKING OUT A BUILDING. 

FIELD WORK. 

109. Outfit. 

Transit. 

Measuring set. 

Line staff. 

Axe. Short stakes. Nails, 3d, 8d, lod, and 2od. ^Mason's 
line. 

2," X Af" scantling. %'' x 6'' or 8" boards, surfaced and 
with one edge of each straight. 

Carpenter's level. Hand saw. Sledge, maul, or stone ham- 
mer. 

Shovel or spade. Pick axe, or grub hoe, — surveyor's style. 

Level. 



XIII. STAKING OUT A BUILDING 121 

Leveling rod. 
Axe. Pegs. Spikes. 

Examine the articles as issued, or be liable for defects found 
upon their return. 

110. Directions. 

Mark all of the corners of the buildings by nails in short 
stakes driven in the ground till firm. Verify the measure- 
ments and angles till no more can be done to make sure 
all of the nails are correctly set. 

Stretch a mason's line from nail to nail, taking a turn around 
each. 

See if anything wrong can be found. If so, correct it. Re- 
peat the work till no fault can be discovered. 

Set 2" X 4" scantling, as stakes, in the ground, high enough,' 
where practicable, to reach up to, or a little above, the ele- 
vation to be given with the level. They should be far 
enough back from the excavation so as to be in no danger 
from caving, but at about the same distance from the 
building. They should stand firm. Drive them with a 
sledge, or stone hammer. In some ground holes may have 
to be dug for them. There must be at least two, and may 
be three, or more, in a group. About a convex corner 
three or more stakes are set so that boards nailed to them 
wall be about parallel to the faces of the walls meeting 
there. Similarly for a reentrant corner. No stakes should 
be set within the limits of the excavation, as a rule. Stakes 
may be set to hold a board about at right angles with a 
v\'all to receive the line for that wall on its projection be- 
yond the stakes. 

Nail boards diagonally from near the top of one stake to 
where another goes in the ground. Tie the stakes together 
securely in this manner. 

With the level and rod mark, on at least one stake in a group, 
the elevation of the reference line for the levels for the 
building, as the top of the foundation wall, the top of the 
water table, or the top of the first floor, joists, or whatever 
line is used. Check these levels fully. 



J 22 XIII. STAKING OUT A BUILDING 

Find, or make a good B. M. to which the levels for the 
building are referred. Have this B. AI. entirely outside of 
the work where by no possibility it can be disturbed. Con- 
nect this B. M. with another B. M. entirely away from the 
locality. Record all of these matters. 
Nail the straight edge of a board to the level mark on a 
stake, straight edge up, and set this edgQ level with the 
carpenter's level. Nail the board to another stake, and 
complete the nailing with four nails in a stake. Thus do 
every where. Saw off the tops of stakes even with the 
tops of the boards. 
Transfer the lines of the building with the transit from the 
nails in the short stakes in the ground to the top edges of 
these boards. 
Make a slight cut with the saw across the top of the boards 
at the line marks, only just deep enough to take a mason's 
line. 

While transferring the lines to the boards, extend one, or 
more, of these lines each way of the building to distant 
marks that cannot be disturbed, for future reference. 
Measure carefully from the nails in the stakes first set on 
any line, each way to these reference marks on that line. 
Witnesses for the corner marks of the building, accurately 
measured, may also be used. Record all these matters 
fully, so the position of the building on the ground, or any 
line of it, can be quickly replaced. 

With a rule draw out a witness mark from each saw cut on 
the surfaced side of the line boards and plainly write there- 
on a brief designation of what line of the building the 
saw cut is on, as "Brick Line." 

Look over the tops of all the line boards and see if they 
are all in the same plane. 

Stretch a mason's line in the saw cuts for every line of the 
building they mark. 

Look over these lines' with the utmost care for any mistakes, 
or faults of ^ny kind. They should all lie in the same 
plane. Measurements anywhere between them should 
agree with the plans. 



XIII. STAKING OUT A BUILDING 1 23 

I laving done everything that can be thought of to insure 
the correctness and security of the work, including good 
records of everything whatever, the building must be left 
for others. If the sills of a wooden building go on the 
linished foundation walls and fit, or the first course of 
cut stone work in a masonry building goes on and fits, 
the anxiety of the engineer should leave him. 



XIII.. STAKING OUT A BUILDING. 

INFORMATION. 

111. Rem. On small buildings, projections which are rectangu- 
lar, polygonal, or circular, and of no great size may be 
conveniently laid out by templates, it being necessary only 
to mark the points where the templates join the main struc- 
ture. 
Circular, or polygonal, forms of considerable size may be 
sometimes laid out by marking their centers within the lim- 
its of the excavation and marking the points where they 
join the rest of the structure. Such centers should be 
marked in a most substantial manner. An old boiler flue, 
or piece of 2" or 3" iron pipe, may be driven plumb, the 
top to the proper elevation, and a plug put in the top on 
which the center may be marked, and closely witnessed by 
measurements to other marks as references. Even this 
may not answer in some cases. 
Large, and especially irregular buildings may be laid out 
by coordinates. This is a satisfactory way because of the 
numerous checks it furnishes, and they are needed. Select 
convenient axes of reference. These may be lines of the 
building itself, or frequently one of them may. In place 
of axes of coordinates the building may be surrounded by 
a rectangle that can be laid out on the ground, and points 
on the plan referred to the sides of this rectangle, — really 
coordinates. Number all the points on the plan that are to 
be marked on the ground. Select the principal axis of 



124 ^m- STAKING OUT A BUILDING 

reference, anywhere across the building in any convenient 
direction, or entirely without it, and also the origin of co- 
ordinates, or measurements, on this line. Record these 
facts. From the plans compute and fully verify, beyond a 
question, the coordinates of every point thereon which is 
to be laid out. Record the numbers of all of these points 
with their coordinates against those numbers. Lay out the 
principal axis of reference on the ground and mark the 
origin of measurement. Measure off on this line the co- 
ordinate along that line of each point of the plan and mark 
the measurement by a nail in a stake in succession, and 
lay out a line at right angles with the principal axis. On 
this line measure the other coordinate of the designated 
point and mark that point by a small nail in a stake num- 
bered for it. Measure between these nails along the lines of 
the building. Record the results, and compare them with 
corresponding dimensions on the plan. They should agree 
with the plan. This gives one, or more, checks on every 
line. This method can be used with success to keep a 
building on a lot barely large enough to receive it, without 
staking out much, if any, of it. 
In the simpler structures the work may be verified as follows : 
Lay out the controlling angle, or angles, with the transit. 
Locate the various marks by measurement. L"se the transit 
to test the angles thus obtained. Or, lay out various lines 
with the transit and locate marks thereon by measure- 
ments. Verify the work by measuring closing distances 
between the marks set in this manner, the same as if the 
points had been laid out by cooordinates, as above outlined. 



TRANSIT ADJUSTMENTS AND TESTS 



XIV. PLATE LEVELS. 

If found much out, partially adjust the worse one first. 

112. Preparation. — 

Set up the transit firmly and level it carefully. 

113. Test.— 

Reverse the transit about its spindle. See if the bubbles read 
level. Reverse the transit back to its first position. See 
if the bubbles again read level. Repeat these trials, mak- 
ing the necessary corrections in the setting, or leveling, of 
the transit, till the bubbles will surely read level again when 
the transit is returned to its first position. Then reverse 
the transit, as at first, and note the deviations of the bubbles 
from level readings. 

114. Correct, 

by estimation, one-half the deviation of a bubble by means 
of the screws that fasten the level tube to the plate. 

Level the transit carefully again. Test the adjustment as 
at first. Repeat the corrections and tests, in this manner, 
till no deviation appears when the test is made. 

Check screws upon the adjusting screws of the level tube 
(sometimes placed in the end plugs of the level tubes) must 
be released before making the correction. These check 
screws keep the level tubes longer in adjustment, but may 
give annoyance in making the adjustment. Do not screw 
them too tight. Test the adjustment and see that it is 
correct after the screws are set. 



126 TRANSIT ADJUSTMENTS AND TESTS 

The vernier plate and the Hmb plate may not be parallel in 
their motions. This may be tested by first adjusting the 
plate levels about the spindle with the plates clamped; then 
releasing the plates and clamping the spindle ; and finally 
testing the adjustment of the plate levels about the axis 
of the vernier plate. If found out of adjustment with 
respect to the motion of the vernier plate, after carefully 
repeated trials, it shows that the two plates do not revolve 
about the same axis. Leave the plate levels in adjustment 
with respect to the spindle if the principal work is running 
straight lines, and reversion on the spindle. If reading 
angles is the principal work, leave the plate levels in ad- 
justment with respect to the motion of the vernier plate. 
In case this defect is serious the transit should go to its 
maker and be recentered. 

Should it be found impossible to adjust the plate levels, after 
repeated careful trials, about either axis of motion, it 
shows that axis of motion with respect to which this diffi- 
culty exists, to be badly damaged. Usually the maker 
must fix it. Make this test after the transit has had a fall. 



XV. LINE OF SIGHT. CLOSED WYES. 

A place to set the transit in is needed where well-defined 
fixed marks can be readily found on opposite sides of it 
at a distance away as great as the telescope will show them 
clearly. It is well to have the marks at about the same 
angular distance, above on one side and below on the 
other, from the place chosen. The plate levels should be 
in adjustment, and the reversions of the transit made about 
the axis they are adjusted for. 

115, Preparations. — 

Set up the transit firmly in a suitable place. Level it care- 
fully. Set the line of sight on a distant, well-defined, 



TRANSIT ADJUSTMENTS AND TESTS I 27 

fixed mark. Reverse the telescope about the transit axis 
and find a similar mark in apparent line. Turn the tele- 
scope back and see if the line of sight strikes the first 
mark. Repeat these pointings, making the necessary cor- 
rections in the setting and leveling of the transit till the 
line of sight will surely strike the first mark again when 
the telescope is turned back. 

116. Test. 

Release the nnecessary clamps and reverse the telescope 
about both axes. Level the transit if the levels show a 
slight disturbance. Set the line of sight on the first mark. 
Reverse the telescope about the transit axis and see if the 
second mark is in apparent line. Turn the telescope back 
to the first mark, as before, and, by the same means, make 
sure the line of sight will strike the mark. Then reverse 
the telescope, as at first, and note the deviation of the line 
of sight from the second mark. 

117. Correct, 

by estimation, one-fourth of the deviation of the vertical 
cross wire by means of the screws at right angles with it 
that hold the cross wires in the telescope tube. Whether 
the telescope shows objects right side up, or not, turn these 
screws as if to increase the apparent deviation. Loosen the 
screw permitting the desired movement before turning the 
other. Leave the screws under a gentle, even, strain. If 
the deviation is large, loosen the other pair of screws 
slightly, but have a care not to get the vertical cross wire 
inclined. 

Set the line of sight again upon the first mark, as at first. 
Repeat the tests, corrections, and tests till no deviation 
appears when the test is made. 

This adjustment is required theoretically in reading angles, 
but not in running straight lines. It conforms to the best 
working conditions, however, both optically, and in the 
field practice. 



128 TRANSIT ADJUSTMENTS AND TIi;STS 

XVI. STRIDING LEVEL. 

118. Adjusting Vertically. 

119. Preparation. 

Set up the transit firmly. Level it carefully by the plate 
levels, or disc level. Bring the transit axis over a leveling 
screw. Clamp the spindle. Place the feet of the striding 
level on the bearings for them on the transit axis. Level 
the striding level with the leveling screws to the transit. 
See that it stands freely on its feet, and remains level. 

120. Test. 

Carefully lift up the striding level, reverse it, and replace its 
feet to the bearings, without jar. In the same manner 
return this level to its first position. See if the bubble 
again reads level. Repeat these reversions, making the 
necessary corrections in the setting or leveling of the 
transit till the striding level bubble will surely read level 
again when returned to its first position. Then reverse the 
striding level as at first, and note the deviation of the 
bubble from a level reading. 

121. Correct, 

by estimation, one-half of the deviation by means of the 
adjusting screw, or screws, at one end of the level tube, 
provided for a vertical adjustment. 

Set the striding level, by means of the leveling screws of 
the transit, to read, and stand, level again. Test adjust- 
ment as at first. Repeat the corrections and tests, in this 
manner, until no deviation is shown by the test. 

In making this adjustment stand the striding level vertically 
over the bearings. Do not incline it. If inclined it may 
show this adjustment apparently imperfect. This requires 
a second adjustment sidewise to bring the axis of the level 
tube into a plane parellel to the line of the points of sup- 
port of the feet of the striding level. 



TRANSIT iVDJUSTMENTS AND TESTS I 29 

122. Adjusting sidewise. 

123. Peparation. 

Make the last adjustment as perfect as practicable. 

124. Test. 

Incline the striding level slightly on its feet. Return it to 
its first position. See if the bubble again reads level. 
Incline it in the opposite direction about the same amount. 
Return it again to its first position. See if the bubble again 
reads level. Repeat these trials, making the necessary cor- 
rections in the setting or leveling of the transit, till the 
bubble will surely read level again when returned to its 
first position, and stand at the same reading when inclined. 
Then incline the striding level, as at first, and note the 
deviation of the bubble from a level reading. Incline it a 
like amount in the opposite direction and note the devia- 
tion. 

125. Correction. 

By means of the screws for a sidewise adjustment set the 
level tube so it will show the same deviation in the same 
direction for the same inclination either way from its 
vertical stand, when tested as above described. 

The bubble should read level in all three positions. If it 
does not the bore of the glass tube is not uniform, and it 
should be replaced by a perfect one at the first opportunity. 
In using such a striding level be very careful to stand it 
plumb on its feet. 

This adjustment, and the preceding, need to be made alter- 
nately together when first the bubble tube is attached to 
its base. 

If. for any reason, the bubble tube has to. be disconnected 
from its base, loosen but one of the sidewise screws and 
notice how tight it is. Likewise, if there is a check screw 
to the vertical adjustment, leave it alone, — onl}^ unscrew 
the adjusting screw. When the bubble tube is again re- 
stored to its connections v/ith its base it can be set almost 
in its proper place by bringing the loosened screws to their 
bearings again, and not require so much adjustment. 



130 TRANSIT ADJUSTMENTS AND TESTS 



XVII. TRANSIT AXIS TRUNNIONS. ROUNDNESS. 

126. Preparation. 

Separate the transit axis from the telescope. Clean its trun- 
nions and their bearings in the wyes of the transit. Set 
up the transit firmly in a place of an even temperature. 
Level the transit carefully. Clamp the spindle so the 
transit axis will stand over a leveling screw. Place the 
transit axis in its wye bearings. Stand the striding level 
on the transit axis with its feet on the trunnions. Level 
the striding level carefull} with the leveling screws to the 
transit. Reverse it and put it in adjustment. Level the 
striding level carefully again and see that everything is 
stable, and steady, so the striding level will stand level. 

127. Test. 

Lift the striding level off. Replace it carefully. See if it 
reads level again. Repeat this test, making any correc- 
tions that- may be needed in the setting or leveling of the 
transit, or adjustment of the striding level, or otherwise, 
till the bubble of the striding level will surely read level 
again when replaced, and stand level. 

Lift the striding level off. Turn the transit axis slightly in 
its bearings. Replace the striding level as before, — do not 
reverse it. Notice if it still reads level. Remove the strid- 
ing level ; turn the transit axis back to its first position ; 
replace the striding level, as before ; and see if it again 
reads level. Repeat this test ; make sure of the stability of 
the apparatus, and of the reading of the bubble of the 
striding level after the transit axis is turned. 

So test the transit axis by turning it a little more at each 
trial till it has been examined entirely round its trunnions 
and returned to its first position. 

Whenever the striding level fails to read level in these tests 
it shows that the trunnions are not round. 

Theoretically, this method will not show which trunnion is 
not round, but in practice a marred trunnion is easily 



TRANSIT ADJUSTMENTS AND TESTS 131 

found b}' looking for the defect shown by the striding 
level. In any case this method may be used to prove the 
trunnions to be round. By providing a support for one 
foot of the striding level while the other rests on a trun- 
nion, that trunnion can be examined separately. Usually 
the transit axis must go to the maker to be refitted, and 
the transit may have to go with it. The finest transits 
must always go to the maker for this defect to be removed. 
The trunnions of the transit axis of a transit of not as 
fine a grade have been smoothed and made of the same 
size by soft wood clamps, oil, flour of emery, and turning 
the transit axis by hand, v.diile a trunnion was held in the 
clamps where the oil and emery had been applied. This was 
so successfully done that the striding level in use with the 
transit would show no difference of any kind between the 
two trunnions. Such a thing is not recommended for 
general practice, but may serve when nothing better can 
be done, except at a great loss of time and much expense. 
When emery is tised in any form about an instrument, the 
utmost care must be taken to get rid of it all. It is so 
liable to do most serious injury to the moving parts that 
its use is prohibited by man}- persons and tripoli, or even 
pumice, substituted. Nothing coarser than flour of emery 
should ever be used. 

XVIII. TRANSIT AXIS TRUNNIONS. EQUAL SIZE. 

128. Preparations. 

Open the wye clips; take out the transit axis; and clean the 
trunnions and their bearings in the wyes. Set up the 
transit firmly. Level it carefully. Clamp the spindle so 
the transit axis will stand over a leveling screw. Place the 
transit axis in its wye bearings. Stand the striding level 
on the transit axis with its feet on the trunnions. Level 
the striding level carefully, with the leveling screws of the 
transit. Reverse it and put it in adjustment. Level the 
striding level again as at first. See that everything is 
stable, and steady, so the striding level will stand level. 



132 TRANSIT ADJUSTMENTS AND TESTS 

129. Test. 

Set the striding level off. Lift out the transit axis carefully, 
reverse it, and replace it in the wyes without jar. Replace 
the striding level without reversing it. Notice if it still 
reads level. Remove it as before. Restore the transit 
axis to its first position without jar. Replace the striding 
level. See if it again reads level. Repeat these trials. 
Make sure of the stability of the apparatus and of the 
reading of the level when the transit axis is reversed. 

If the level does not read level when the transit axis is re- 
versed it shows the trunnions to be of different sizes. They 
must usually be fitted by the maker, but may be treated as 
noted in XVII. This method tests for differences in size. 
Should a diff'erence be shov^'n, the trunnions are not made 
with precision enough for the striding level, or the level 
is too sensitive for the transit. 

Professor Durand's three-point calliper may be made to give 
still more delicate tests for roundness and differences in 
size. 

Theoretically this test will show whether the two trunnions 
have a common axis. Practically, this defect would have 
to be so large as to be a disgrace to shops of the present 
day, for it to appear. Trunnions are turned to the same 
size, even when using the term size with rigid precision. 
That is, the trunnions are so nearly of a size that if the 
tests appear to show a difference, that difference is quite 
likely due to the errors of the test (observation, apparatus, 
temperature, etc.), instead of to the difference in size of 
the trunnions. Some very elaborate tests would seem to 
confirm this view. 

A level bubble can be read with as much more precision, 
with a reading glass than without, as the graduations of 
the plate can. 



TRANSIT ADJUSTMENTS AND TESTS I3;: 



XTX. LEVELING THE TRANSIT AXIS. 

Set up the transit and level it carefully with the plate levels. 
Stand the striding level on the transit over a leveling screw. 
Level the striding level carefully with the leveling screws 
of the transit. Reverse it and put it in adjustment. Level 
the striding level as at first. See that everything is steady 
so the striding level will stand level. Turn the transit 
one-quarter round on its spindle axis and level the strid- 
ing level again. Turn the transit back to its first position, 
— do not reverse it. Level the striding level. By repeated 
trials set the transit, by means of the leveling screws, so 
the striding level will stand level in either position of the 
transit. Test the striding level again for its adjustment. 
Repeat these operations till the striding level shows the 
transit axis to be level in both positions of the transit and 
itself is in adjustment at the final test. 

The transit axis will then be level, but the spindle axis will 
not be vertical unless these axes are in adjustment. This 
adjustment is given in XXII. It may be tested and made at 
the time of leveling the transit axis by the second method 
given for this adjustment in XXII. Then the transit will be 
completely leveled by means of the striding level. It will 
be much more precisely set than any plate levels can set 
it. In the better grades of transits, the plate levels are for 
approximate setting only. 



XX. LINE OF SIGHT. OPEN WYES. 

Select a place for making this adjustment in, from which a 
well-defined, fixed mark can be seen when the telescope 
is pointed level, or nearly so, and as far away as the teles- 
cope will show it plainly. Use the striding level to the 
transit axis. The trunnions of the transit axis must be 
round, of the same size, and centered on the same axial 
line. 



134 TRANSIT ADJUSTMENTS AND Te;STS 

130. Preparations. 

Set up the transit firmly in a suitable place. Open the wyes. 
Level the transit axis carefully with the striding level as 
directed in XIX. Set the line on a distant, well-defined, 
fixed mark, with the transit axis leveled. Remove the 
striding level. 

131. Test. 

Carefully lift the telescope from the wyes ; turn it over, the 
objective directed towards the mark, and replace it in the 
wyes without jar. Replace the striding level and see if 
the transit axis still stands level. Remove the striding 
level. Restore the telescope to its first position. Replace 
the striding level. See if the line of sight again strikes 
the mark and the transit axis is level. Repeat these -trials. 
making the necessary corrections in the setting or leveling 
of the transit, or the adjustment of the striding level, till 
sure that the transit axis stands level in both positions, 
and the line of sight strikes the mark in its first one. 
Leave the telescope in its second position. X'otice the 
deviation of the line of sight from the mark. 

132. Correct 

one-half of this deviation by means of the cross wire 
screws at right angles with the vertical cross wire, as di- 
rected in XV. 

Set the line of sight again upon the mark, as at first. Re- 
peat the preparations, tests, corrections, preparations and 
tests, till the test shows no deviation. 

This adjustment can be made in the way described in XV" for 
closed wyes, when the telescope can be reversed on the 
transit axis. 



XXI. AXES. CLOSED WYES. 

The plate levels should be in adjustment. The line of sight 
should be in adjustment. The objective slide should be 



TRANSIT ADJUSTMENTS AND TESTS .135 

in good line. If the transit has a telescope level, or other 
delicate level, it should be leveled by it as directed in XXII 
or XXIII. In making this adjustment, the telescope should 
be turned through a vertical angle of about 90°, — from 
about 45° above, to about 45° below, the horizon. 

133. Preparations, 

Set up the transit firmly near some high, well-defined, fixed 
mark, so that when the telescope shall be directed to it 
the elevation will be about 45°. Level the transit care- 
fully, as above noted. Set the line of sight on the high 
mark. Read, or estimate, the angle of elevation. Direct 
the telescope at the same angle below the horizon, on the 
same side of the transit. Find, or fix, a mark in apparent 
line. Turn back to the upper mark and see if the line of 
sight again strikes it. Repeat the pointings at both marks, 
making the necessary corrections in the setting and level- 
ing of the transit, and in the position of the lower mark, 
till sure the line of sight will strike both marks with the 
transit carefully leveled. 

134. Test. 

Release the necessary clamps. Reverse the telescope about 
both axes. Set the line of sight upon the upper mark. 
Notice if the transit is still level. If not it must be reset, 
the levels adjusted if need be, and the whole preparation 
repeated. Having made sure of the setting of the transit 
and the pointing of the line of sight, direct the telescope 
downwards, as before, and find, or fix, a second mark in 
apparent line, with the same care, and tests, used in locat- 
ing the first mark. See if the two lov/er marks are the 
same, or in exact line. Leave the telescope so as to show 
this. 

135. Correction. 

Move the vertical cross wire over one-fourth of the apparent 
distance between these two lower marks, by raising, or 
lowering, one end of the transit axis, by the device pro- 
vided. 



136 'J'RANSIT ADJUSTMENTS AND TESTS 

Prepare for and make a test of the adjustment, as at first. 
Repeat these tests, corrections, and tests, till the test shows 
the lower marks in the same line, or as one. 

This adjustment sets the axes at right angles with each other. 
It, theoretically, enables one to measure correctly the 
angle between the vertical planes of lines having very 
different angles of elevation. 



XXII. AXES. OPEN WYES. 

The axes may be adjusted in the way given for closed wyes 
in XXI. This process involves leveling the transit with 
the striding level independently of the adjustment of the 
axes, which adjustment is involved in the usual process 
of thus leveling the transit. If the striding level feet do 
not stand on the transit axis trunnions, use the process 
for adjusting the axes given below. If the transit has a 
delicate level attached it may be leveled by that, according 
to the next paragraph, or according to XXIII. 

136. Leveling with the Transit Axis Striding Level. 

Set up the transit firmly and level it carefully with the plate 
levels. Place the striding level in position. Turn the 
transit on its spindle so the striding level will stand over a 
leveling screw. Level the striding level carefully with the 
leveling screws to the transit. Turn the transit one-quarter 
round and level the striding level again. Turn the transit 
back to its first position, — do not reverse it. Level the 
striding level again. Turn the transit to its second posi- 
tion, — do not reverse it. Level the striding level again. 
By repeated trials set the transit by means of its leveling 
screws so the striding level will read level in either of 
these positions. 

Reverse the transit on its spindle. Notice the reading of 
the striding level. Reverse back again and see if the strid- 
ing level now reads level. Repeat these reversions, mak- 
ing the necessary corrections in the setting or leveling of 



1 



TRANSIT ADJUSTMENTS AND TESTS. I 37 

the transit, till the striding level will certainly read level in 
the first position and return to the same reading always in 
the reversed position of the transit. Leave the transit 
reversed. Note the deviation of the bubble of tlie strid- 
ing level from a level reading. 

137. Correct 

one-half this deviation by the vertical adjusting screw of 
the striding level tube. 

Repeat the leveling as first noted above, then the reversions, 
and make any further correction that may be needed in 
the setting of the striding level tube by its vertical adjust- 
ing screw, as before. 

Continue these operations till the striding level will read level 
in both positions of the transit when it is reversed. 

By the same means set the striding level so it will read level 
when the transit is turned one-quarter round, and re- 
versed, as before. 

Proceed with these experiments till the striding level is set 
to read level in any position of the transit when turned 
around on its spindle, or, speaking theoretically, till the 
striding level will stand level during a complete revolution 
of the transit on its spindle. 

The spindle will then stand plumb. The striding level will 
be adjusted to the spindle and not to its feet by this process. 
Any such delicate level on the transit may be treated and 
used to level the transit by. The telescope level or the 
vernier level, being provided with a slow-motion screw, 
may be set by that instead of an adjusting screw as above 
described. This is detailed in XXIII. 

138. Adjusting the Axes. First Method. 

139. Preparations. 

Set up the transit firmly near some high, well-defined, fixed 
mark, so that when the telescope shall be directed toward 
it the elevation will be about 45"^. Level the transit as 
directed above or in XXIII. Set the line of sight on the high 



138 TRANSIT ADJUiTMENTS AND TESTS. 

mark, noticing the level to see that the transit stands steady. 
Read or estimate the angle of elevation. Direct the tele- 
scope at the same angle below the horizon, on the same 
side of the transit. Notice the level again and see that it 
reads level. If not, repeat these operations till it does, and 
both transit and level work satisfactorily. Then find, or 
fix, a mark in apparent line. Turn back to the upper mark 
*" and see if the line of sight again strikes it. Notice the 

level again and see that it reads level. Repeat the point- 
ings at both marks, noticing the level, and making the 
■ necessary corrections in the setting and leveling of the 
transit, also in the position of the lower mark, till sure 
the line of sight will strike both marks with the transit 
carefully leveled. 

140. Test. 

Release the necessary clamps. Reverse the telescope about 
both axes. Set the line of sight upon the upper mark. 
Notice if the transit is still level. If not, it must be reset* 
and leveled as directed above or in XXIII. Having made 
sure of the setting of the transit and the pointing of the line 
of sight, direct the telescope downwards as before, and 
find, or fix, a second mark in apparent line, with the same 
care, and tests, used in locating the first mark. See if the 
two lower marks are the same, or in exact line. Leave 
the telescope so as to show this. 

141. Correction. 

Move the vertical cross wire over one-fourth of the apparent 
distance between these two lower marks, by raising or 
lowering one end of the transit axis by the device provided. 

Prepare for, and make a test of the adjustment, as at first. 
Repeat these tests, corrections, and tests, till the test shows 
the two lower marks in the same line, or as one. 

These processes will reveal defects of construction that can 
be shown by the striding level. For this reason the exam- 
inations notedin XVII and XVIII should be the first made. 
Leveling with the striding level will not show a difference 
in size of the transit axis trunnions. 



1 



TRANSIT ADJUSTMENTS AND TESTS. 1 39 

142. Adjusting the Axes. Second Method. 

143. Preparations. 

Set up the transit firmly and level it carefully with the plate 
levels. Place the striding level in position. Turn the 
transit on its spindle so the striding level will stand over 
a levehng screw. Level the striding level carefully with 
the leveling screws to the transit. Remove the striding 
level, reverse it, and replace it, as in adjusting it. See if 
it is much out of adjustment. If it is, adjust it approxi- 
matel}'. 

Level the striding level carefully with the leveling screws to 
the transit. Turn the transit one-quarter round and level 
the striding level again. Turn the transit back to its first 
position, — do not reverse it. Level the striding level again. 
Turn the transit to its second position,- — do not reverse it. 
Level the striding level again. By repeated trials set the 
transit, by means of its leveling screws, so the striding 
level will read level in either of these positions. 

Adjust the striding level by the process of XVL as perfectly 
as possible. 

Level the transit again, as above directed. Test the adjust- 
ment of the striding level. Repeat these operations till 
sure the transit stands steady, the striding level is in nice 
adjustment, and that it reads level in either position of 
the transit. 

144. Test. 

Reverse the transit on its spindle. Notice the reading of the 
striding level. Reverse back again and see if the striding 
level still reads level. Repeat these reversions, making 
the necessary corrections in the setting, or levehng of the 
transit, or adjustment of the striding level, tih the bubble 
will certainly read level in the first position of the transit, 
and always return to the same reading in the reversed po- 
sition. Leave the transit reversed. Note the deviation of 
the bubble of the striding level from a level reading. 



140 TRANSIT ADJUSTMENTS AND TESTS. 

145. Correct 

one-half this deviation by raising, or lowering, one end of 
the transit axis, by the device provided. 

Prepare for and make a test of the adjustment, as at tirst. 
Repeat these tests, corrections, and tests, till the test 
shows the striding level always to read level. Last of all 
try the striding level for adjustment on its own feet. If 
not in adjustment repeat the work. 

This is the usual way of leveling the transit ; leveling the 
transit axis, adjusting the axes; and adjusting the strid- 
ing level, all at one time. 



XXIII. TELESCOPE LEVEL TUBE. 

Telescope level tubes are attached by nuts permitting a verti- 
cal motion at each end of the level tube, and without any 
sidewise adjustment, such as is commonly seen on the wye 
level, and on striding levels. This makes it important that 
these level tubes be carefully set by the maker, and that the 
glass bubble tube be placed, and fastened, in its brass case 
with every care. Striding levels are used, fitting on col- 
lars turned on the body tube of the telescope. These may 
be adjusted in every particular. They are very easily at- 
tached and detached, will not fall off, and can be left on 
the telescope when it is either side up. The ability to com- 
pletely adjust them makes them more desirable than the 
old form, even if provided with a double ground bubble 
tube, reading either side up, which is protected b_v a loose 
brass shell outside the brass case of the bubble tube. All 
such bubble tubes should be scaled directly on the glass 
itself, not by a brass scale standing over it. 

This adjustment is for the purpose of setting the level tube, 
or the horizontal cross wire, so the bubble will read level 
when the line of sight is horizontal. With the level tube 
attached to the telescope body tube, as first above noted, 
the level tube is adjusted and there is no very good way 
of setting the horizontal cross wire in its best position in 



TRANSIT ADJUSTMENTS AND TESTS. I4I 

the telescope. With the striding level no aid is required — 
one can make the adjustment alone. 
To adjust the attached telescope level there are tliree prin- 
cipal steps. First, leveling the transit with the telescope 
level. Second, setting the line of sight horizontal. Third, 
setting the level tube and testing the adjustment. This 
method of leveling the transit is necessary or the adjust- 
ment of the delicate telescope level would be made to de- 
pend upon the plate levels. 

146. Leveling the Transit. 

Set up the transit firmly. Level it carefully with the plate 
levels. Set the telescope level tube to read level by means of 
clamp and slow motion screw to the transit axis. Reverse 
the transit on its spindle. Xotice the telescope level read- 
ing. Reverse back. See if the telescope level reads level 
again. If not. set it to read level again. Reverse the tran- 
sit again and notice the telescope level reading. Continue 
these reversions, making the necessary corrections in the 
setting of the transit and the telescope level, till it will 
certainly read level in the first position of the transit, and 
return to the same reading always when the transit is re- 
versed. Leave the transit reversed. Note the deviation 
of the bubble of the telescope level from a level reading. 

147. Correct 

one-half of this deviation by the slow-motion screw to 
the transit axis. 

Level and reverse the transit again, as before. 

Repeat these operations till the telescope level will read level 
in either the first, or reversed position, of the transit. 

Turn the transit one-quarter round and level it again, as 
above set forth. 

By repeated trials, making the necessary corrections in the 
setting of the transit and the telescope level, as above di- 
rected, make this level read level for any position of the 
transit when turned on its spindle. 



142 TRANSIT ADJUSTMENTS AND TESTS. 

148. Setting the line of sight level. 

Level the transit as above directed. Leave the telescope 
clamped. Measure off, each way from the center of the 
transit, the same distance, say 150' or 200', and drive a 
stake till firm, at the end of each measurement. Number 
these stakes i and 2. See that the transit is level and 
stands steady. Take accurate rod readings on the tops 
of the stakes. Subtract the reading on / from the reading 
on 2 and preserve the sign of the result, -|- or — . Call 
this result k. 

Move the transit to a place, a short distance, say 30', beyond 
stake I, carrying the telescope clamped as last used. Set 
up the transit here and level it as before. Take a rod 
reading, 1\, on stake i and another r.,, on stake 2, just as 
the first ones were taken. Record these with their num- 
bers. Find 1\ — 1\, noting the sign. Call this k' . See if 
k = k' . Make sure of the whole work. 

If A'=: k' the line of sight is horizontal and the level tube in 
adjustment. If k' does not equal k, measure the distances 
from the transit's center to stake i, d-^, and to stake 2, d^. 
Find a rod reading, R^, for stake 2 by the following equa- 
tion, observing all signs : 

k — ¥ 

R^ = r^^ d., (i) 

d.-, — d-^ 

Hold up the rod on stake 2 (set at this reading, R^, if a tar- 
get rod), and by means of the slow-motion screw to the 
transit axis, set the line of sight so it will give the rod 
reading, Rn, on stake 2. 

Test by taking a new rod reading, R\ on i. Find R.. — -^'1 
observing the sign of the result. See if the result equals k. 

Proceed with these trials and tests till the line of sight is 
set so that Ro — R\ at a test, equals k, or so near it that 
the experiments show it to be useless to try further. 

149. Setting the level tube. 

Set the level tube to read level by means of the nuts at one 
end of it. Start that nut first that will permit the desired 
movement. Leave the nuts under a gentle even strain. 



TRANSIT ADJUSTMENTS AND TESTS. I 43 

150. Test 

the level tube adjustment by additional rod readings and 
finally set it so that R^ — R\ = k when the bubble stands 
level, — or as near this condition as can be. 
If the ground is near enough level, drive the stakes sO' the 
first rod readings on them will be equal. Then k = o. 
Proceed as above directed after that, but use the equation 
below instead of (i) observing all signs. 

R.==^^ (2) 

d, — d. 

With some experience in making this adjustment, probably 
the equations will be dispensed with. 

151. Double ground level tube. 

Adjust as directed above, using but one side. Release the 
necessary clamps ; reverse the telescope about both axes ; 
and set the line of sight horizontal by means of the rod 
reading on stakes / and 2. See if the bubble of the teles- 
cope level reads level. Repeat the observations and rod 
readings sure the line of sight is level, the transit steady, 
and the bubble gives the same reading. Note the devia- 
tion of the bubble from a level reading. 

Set the bubbles to read level by means of the slow-motion 
screw to the transit axis. Take a rod reading on stake 2, — 
the distant stake. 

Move the horizontal cross wire by means of the screws at 
right angles with it, that hold the cross wires in the teles- 
cope tube, and set it so the rod reading at stake 2 will 
equal the half sum of the former rod readings on this 
stake, — the one when the line of sight was level, and the 
one _when the bubble read level. Whether the telescope 
shows objcts right side up or not, turn these screws as if 
to increase the apparent deviation of the second rod read- 
ing from the first. Loosen the screw permitting the de- 
sired movement before turning the other. Leave the 
screws under a gentle, even strain. If the difference be- 



144 TRANSIT ADJUSTMENTS AND TESTS. 

tween the two rod readings is large, loosen the other pair 
of screws slightly, but be very careful not to turn the cross 
wire ring. Be certain the transit stands steady and the 
rod readings are correct. 

Set the line of sight again level by means of rod readings 
on both stakes. 

Set the level tube to read level by means of the nuts at one 
end of it. Start the nut first that will permit the desired 
movement. Leave the nuts under a gentle even strain. 

Test the level tube adjustment by additional rod readings 
and finally set it so that R^, — R± = k when the bubble 
stands level, or as near this condition as may be. 

Release the necessary clamps, and reverse the telescope about 
both axes. Set the line of sight level by rod readings on 
both stakes. See if the bubble of the telescope level (now 
the same side up again as at first adjusted), reads level. 
Repeat the observations and rod readings till sure the line 
of sight is level, the transit steady, and the bubble gives 
the same reading. Note the deviation of the bubble from 
a level reading. 

If this is considerably less than before, for the other side 
of the bubble tube, make the same observations and ad- 
justments for this side, as above detailed for the other. 

Release the necessary clamps, reverse the telescope about 
both axes and make the test just above noted, anew for the 
side of the bubble tube which is again uppermost. 

Repeat these trials, adjustments, and tests, till the telescope 
level, and the horizontal cross wire, are so set that the line 
of sight will be level when the bubble reads level which- 
ever side up the bubble tube may be, as shown by rod read- 
ings on both stakes. 

If persistent trial under favorable conditions of light, seeing, 
temperature, and steadiness, does not complete these ad- 
justments so they will bear the test imposed or very nearly 
so, repeat the work and make these adjustments so the 
two sides of the bubble tube will read the same (not a 
level reading), when the line of sight is kvel. Record 
this reading, and fasten it in t)ie transit box. 



TRANSIT ADJUSTMENTS AND TESTS. 145 

By these last adjustments the horizontal cross wire is set 
nearer its proper place in the telescope tube, if not at that 
place. The trouble of these adjustments shows the value 
of such a level tube in such a place. Once the level tube 
is proven to be ground alike on both sides it makes matters 
somewhat easier. Even with a perfect level tube there 
can be no sidewise adjustment and the device is not nearly 
as perfect as that of a striding level standing on collars 
turned on the body tube of the telescope. 



XXIV. HORIZONTAL CROSS WIRE. STRIDING 
TELESCOPE LEVEL. 

152. Preparations. 

Set up the transit firmly. Level it carefully with its plate 
levels. Clamp the spindle so that the telescope will stand 
over a leveling screw. Clamp the telescope level, — as 
shown by its striding level. Adjust the striding level as 
directed in XVI. Level the transit by means of the teles- 
cope level as directed above. See, at the last, that the 
striding telescope level remains in adjustment with respect 
to its own feet. 

Direct the telescope to some object and find a mark on it in 
line with horizontal cross wire when the transit is care- 
fully leveled by the telescope level, and that level is in 
good adjustment. Prove the steps and make sure the con- 
ditions are favorable. 

153. Test. 

Release the necessary clamps. Reverse the telescope about 
both axes, and set it level as before. Be sure the striding 
level keeps its adjustment. Note the deviation of the hori- 
zontal cross wire from the mark it covered before. 

154. Correction. 

Move the horizontal cross wire by means of the screws at 
right angles with it, that hold the cross wires in the teles- 



146 TRANSIT ADJUSTMENTS AND TESTS. 

cope tube, and set it so it will cover a place midway between 
the two marks above noted, when the telescope is level. 
Test the adjustment as at first. Repeat the test, correc- 
■ tion, and test, till the horizontal cross wire will cover the 
. same mark with the telescope either side up, and level. 
This arangement of a telescope level is the best for gener- 
al use. The same striding level may be made to fit the 
transit axis also. 



XXV. VEHTICAL CIRCLE VERNIER. 

If the telescope is provided with a level, as above noted in 
XXIII or XXIV, it may be put in adjustment, or the hori- 
zontal cross wire adjusted, as directed in XXIV; the line 
of sight set horizontal; and the vernier of the vertical circle 
set to read zero when the line of sight is level. This is 
best, when practicable. 

Some transits have a vertical arc in the place of a full circle. 
Some have two opposite verniers to the vertical circle, 
some but one. Some transits have two opposite verniers 
and two opposite sectors of a vertical circle fitting these 
verniers. With opposite verniers an examination should 
be made to ascertain if the verniers given readings at 180° 
apart, or sufficiently near so, — that is within a reasonable 
limit of instrumental precision, temperature, perfection of 
construction, and closeness of reading considered. This 
will be ascertained by taking numerous readings on differ- 
ent parts of the circle, or opposite sectors, both direct and 
reversed, and comparing them. 

If the transit has no telescope level, and but one vernier to 
its vertical circle, or the verniers and circle, or opposite 
sectors are not well centered, and in good working order, 
this adjustment must be made by the peg method given for 
the telescope level in XXIII, — the leveling being done by 
the plate levels. This adjustment then must depend upon 



TRANSIT ADJUSTMENTS AND TESTS. ' 1 47 

the least sensitive of the plate levels, — the one parallel to the 
telescope. To provide against this, a delicate level is at- 
tached to the bar carrying the opposite verniers, on transits 
having such, which is controlled by a slow motion screw 
similar to the one used for the transit axis. This level may 
be used to level the transit with, as directed in XXIII. These 
conditions call for several forms of this adjustment, as was 
the case with the telescope level. These are indicated 
above, except the one given below. 

1 55. Full vertical circle. Opposite verniers. 

156. Preparations. 

Set up the transit firmly. Level it carefully by the plate 
levels. Complete the leveling by the level for the 
verniers of the vertical circle, if there is one, as 
directed in XXIII. Set the vertical circle to read. Vernier A, 
o°oq'oo'^ and Vernier B, i8o°oo'oo". Turn the transit on 
its spindle; direct the telescope to some object; and find a 
mark in line with the horizontal cross wire. See that the 
transit is steady and the levels to be trusted. 

157. Test. 

Release the necessary clamps, reverse the telescope about 
both axes ; see that levels show the transit to be steady and 
leveled, and set the vertical circle to read Ver A, i8o°oo' 
00" and Ver. B, o°oo'oo'^ Note the deviation of the hor- 
izontal cross wire from the mark at first in rang'e with it. 

Repeat the steps of this process till sure of the result shown. 
Leave the transit so the telescope shows the deviation. 

158. Correction. 

Set the line of sight midway between its two pointings, by 
means of the slow motion screw to the transit axis. Set the 
verniers by means of their slow-motion screw or such 
other device as isprovided,to read o°oo'oo" and i8o°o'oo", 
or one at o°oo'oo", and record the readings of both. Fas- 
ten these last readings in the transit box. 



14 8 TRANSIT ADJUSTMENTS AND TESTS. 

Set the level to the verniers to read level, if there is one, af- 
ter setting to read o°oo'oo" and i8o°oo'oo" as above. 

Test the adjustments as at first. Repeat the preparations-, 
tests, corrections, preparations, and tests, till the line of 
sight will strike the same mark whichever side up the teles- 
scope may be when the verniers are set for a level line 
of sight, and the transit carefully leveled, or as nearly as 
can be to these conditions. 



XXVI. LINE OF SIGHT. 

If a transit has a telescope level attached to its body tube, 
it being in adjustment in respect to the line of sight and it 
is necessary to adjust the vertical cross wire, as in XV, some 
work may be saved by leveling the transit for that adjust- 
ment with the telescope level, setting the line of sight level, 
■and observing some mark in line with the horizontal cross 
wire, before beginning the adjustment of the vertical wire. 
After the vertical wire is adjusted set the horizontal wire 
on the same mark, first seeing that the transit is as well 
leveled as before, and adjust the telescope level to read 
level again, in case it needs it. 

The same is true for the vernier, or verniers, to the vertical 
circle. 

It is especially easy to derange the cross wires whenever all 
four cross wire screws are loosened. 

If the telescope level is a striding level it is so little work to 
adjust the horizontal cross wire that it had better be done 
instead of depending on any such device as here given. 



XXVII. CENTERING THE EYE-PIECE. 

This is for the purpose of clear vision, as one might center 
a magnifying glass more carefully over an object to be 
viewed. Frequently there is no way provided for making 
this adjustment, and none is needed. 



\ 



TRANSIT ADJUSTMENTS AND TESTS. I 49 

Set up the transit where the telescope can be directed to the 
hght, — artificial light will do. By means of the four screws 
like, or similar, to the cross wire screws, that hold the ring- 
in the body tube of the telescope, in which the inner end 
of the eye-piece slides, set that ring so the cross wires di- 
vide the field of view symmetrically. 



XXVIII. THE OBJECTIVE SLIDE. 

No adjustment of the objective slide should be needed. At 
this point the skill of the maker should be manifest. A 
test is given below instead of an adjustment. This test will 
indicate how perfectly the slide is fitted, if the objective is 
well mounted, or how well the objective is mounted if the 
slide is well fitted. Two imperfections may be present, or 
but one of them. An adjustment does not correct the difli- 
culty. It partly hides it. 

Set the transit where a row of stakes can be lined by it with- 
out a motion of any kind except changing the focus of the 
objective. Clamp the telescope securely with respect to 
all its motions. Line out a row of stakes, at measured in- 
tervals of fifty feet, to i,ooo or 1,500 feet away. Use a 
foresight, either at the end of the line, or beyond it, to keep 
the transit steady by. Mark points on these stakes precisely 
in line, and at the measured distances apart. 

]\Iove the transit to the other end of the line and by trial set 
it so the line of sight covers the end marks, with no motion 
but focussing the objective. Leave the telescope so clamp- 
ed. Line a new set of points at the same places as before. 
Note their deviations. There should be none, theoretically. 

This test is with respect to line. A similar test with respect 
to level may be made by setting points on the sides of tall 
stakes in the line of the horizontal cross wire. The hor- 
izontal cross wire cannot be easily set to cover the end 
marks in the second position of the transit. Set the teles- 
cope, by means -of the slow motion screw to the transit ax- 



TRANSIT ADJUSTMENTS AND TESTS. 

is, SO the line of sight, by the horizontal cross wire, will 
])ass at equal distances from, and on the same side of, the 
end marks. Make a new line of marks. Measure the 
spaces between these and the former marks. They should 
be equal, theoretically. 



TOWN, CITY AND VILLAGE PLATS 

INSTRUCTIONS RELATIVE TO MAKING AND FILING IN THE STATE OE 

MICHIGAN. 

The following suggestions, forms, and extracts from the laws 
governing the making and filing of land plats are compiled for the 
information and benefit of surveyors and other interested parties. 
Act. Xo. 309 Laws of 1887 (§3372 and §3373 C. L. of 1897) 
§3372 as amended by act 114 of the P. A. 1909, took effect Sep- 
tember 1st, 1909, and all plats made on or after that date must be 
in conformity therewith. 

1. In making the survey it is required that permanent 
MONUMENTS shall be located in the ground at all angles in the 
boundaries of the land platted, and at all the intersections of 
streets or streets and alleys as shown on the map or plat, and 
when there are permanent objects in the vicinity of such monu- 
ments the bearings and distances of such objects shall be noted. 
The character and dimensions of the monuments and the bear- 
ings and distances of such witness points or objects shall be dis- 
tinctly given in the most convenient manner on the plat. The 
exact position of the monuments should be indicated on the plat 
by a small circle "O" or cross "X" and such monuments MUST 
NOT BE OF WOOD. They are to be permanent. 

2. If the plat be of a town, city or village, the full name of 
such town, city or village must appear as the title or name of the 
plat; if the land platted be an addition to or a subdivision of a 
town, city or village already platted, then let the title of the plat 
include, with the name of such addition or subdivision, the name 
of the town, city or village, as the case may be, of which such 
platted land is a subdivision, or to which it is an addition. The 
name of the county in which land platted is situated should appear 
under the title. 



152 TOWN, CITY AND VILLAGE PLATS 

3. The plat must be on a scale showing not more than two 
hundred feet to an inch, and on good muslin-backed paper 18x24 
inches .in size; all clrtificatls must bl written or printed 

ON THE paper on which THE PLAT IS MADE, AND ON THE SAME 
SIDE OP THE SHEET. 

4. The sections and parts of sections platted must be des- 
ignated by lines with appropriate letters and figures. In case of 
a subdivision of lots or blocks of a previous survey, the outlines 
of the original or previous lots or blocks so subdivided must be 
designated by lines, which must be marked with appropriate let- 
ters and figures. This must be done in such a manner as to show 
without reference to the written description, the starting point 
and the course and length of each of the outlines. Where any of 
the outlines are identical and coterminus with the lines of a pre- 
vious survey or plat, it will be sufficient to give the destination of 
such outlines as given in such previous survey or plat. 

5. The land platted is to be fully described in writing or 
PRINTING upon the paper on which the plat is drawn. This de- 
scription must be so complete that from it, without reference to 
the plat, the starting point can be determined and the outlines run. 
In connection with the description should be a short and simple 
form of dedication, which must be signed by the proprietors and 
their wives, whose signatures must be witnessed, and whose ex- 
ecution of the dedication must be acknowledged as deeds convey- 
ing land are required to be witnessed and acknowledged. 

6. There must be drawn upon the plat a plain designation of 
the cardinal points and a correct scale. 

7. Where all the lots in a block have the same dimensions, it 
shall be sufficient to mark the precise length and width upon one 
tier thereof, but all gores, triangles, or other lots, which are not 
either squares or parallelograms, shall have the length of their 
sides defined by figures. 

8. The streets must be named or numbered and their course 
and width designated. All public grounds and alleys must be 
properly designated. 

9. The surveyor must certify that the plat is a correct one 
and that the monuments described in it have been planted as there- 
in described. 



TOWN, CITY AND VII.LAGE; PLATS 1 53 

10 Detached parcels cannot be included in one plat, nor can 
more than one plat be made on one sheet. Contigious parcels 
owned by different parties may be embraced in one plat, all join- 
ing in the execution and acknowledgement ; it is not necessary to 
specify the particular parcels belonging to each. 

11. Before a plat shall be forwarded for approval, and be- 
fore any copies are made therefrom, there must be inscribed up- 
on the ORIGINAL the County Treasurer's tax certificate required 
by law. Also a certificate of approval of the city or village coun- 
cil, or township board, as the location of lands platted may re- 
quire. 

12. For the purpose of approval and recording, an exact 
copy is to be made from the original after certificates above re- 
ferred to are inscribed thereon, and said original and copy 
forwarded to the Auditor General of the State for approval and 
record, together with $4.00 fee required by the statute. When 
the original plat has been approved by the Auditor General the 
same will be forwarded from the Auditor General's Depart- 
ment to the Register of Deeds of the county in which lands are 
platted, for recording, together with fee required by statute, while 
the COPY will be filed in the office of the Auditor General. Should 
proprietor wish to retain a copy, two copies of the original 
should be forwarded at the time of forwarding the original plat, 
one copy of which may be made on tracing linen, if so desired, 
which second copy will be returned to proprietor with proper cer- 
tificates thereon. 

13. The fee of $4.00 to accompany the original plat, as 
above required, covers a fee of $1.00 to the Register of Deeds for 
recording, and a fee of $3.00 to the Auditor General for the ben- 
efit of the State. 

14. The foregoing is not intended to be a perfect manual 
containing all that is embodied in the law, but to call attention 
to points in which plats are most likely to be defective. 

15. Every plat sent to the Auditor General, either for ap- 
proval or for filing in his office, should be accompanied by the 
name and postofiice address of the person sending it, to insure 
proper return. 



154 TOWN, CITY AND VILLAGE; PLATS 

i6. The law of 1887 as amended by Act 114 of P. A., 1909, 
is appended for convenient reference; IT should bl carefully 

STUDIED AND ALL ITS REQUIREMENTS OBSERVED. 

17. Observe the requirements of Section 135, General Tax 
Law of 1893, as amended by Act 154 of P. A. 1895, which is 
hereto appended. 

18. In response to frequent requests for forms of Dedica- 
tion, Description and Surveyor's Certificate to be observed in 
making plats, the following has been prepared. While they are 
short and simple, it is believed they meet the requirements of 
law. 



The attorney general advises that if the pronripf . . ' \ ~ 

dedication to account for the absence of signature of tf " ^- '^''^''^'^' ""' ^^'^'^^''' ^'^e fact should 



the ndfe. ^''^^^^ '» the 

DEDICATION. 
Know Ahh men p,v these presents, That we. 

proprietor, and ■.■■■■.■■■■ 

the annexed plat to be surveyed, laid out and platted/^be ' known 'ai!' ^^^^ ^^^^<^ the land embraced m 
that the streets and alleys as shown on said plat are herebydedicated to the use of S^'^^l-^'''^'^ '"' 

SIGNED AND SEALED IN PRESENCE OF ^ 

[L. S.] 



STATE OF MICHIGAN )• ' [L. S.] 

County of f ^^• 

^" '^^f '^""^ °^ '9... before me, a Notary Public in and for said county person.Uv 

came the above name ^j^^j •^' lJci:.onaiiy 

his wife, known to me to be the persons who executed the above dedication, and acknowledged the samo' ta'l" ' 
their free act and deed. ■ ^ lo ue 



., ^ . . . Notary public Co., Mich. 

i\ly Commission expires 



DESCRIPTION OF LAND PLATTED 
The land embraced in the annexed plat of is described as follows • 



SURVEYORS CERTIFICATE. 
I hereby certify that the plat hereon delineated is a correct one, and that permanent monuments, consisting 
of bave been planted at points marked 

(Clearly describe the moinin--en'iS.) 

thus 3S thereon shown at all angles in the boundaries of 

die land platted, and at all intersections of streets or streets and alleys. 

(Using some symbol such as a small circle (o) cr cross (x) or letters cr namei a. s to indicate the e.xact location.) 

NOTE : The monuments must not be of wood. Surveyor. 



TOWN, CITY AND VILLAGE PLATS 1 55 



COUNTY TREASURER'S CERTIFICATE RELATING TO 

TAXES. 

Section 135 of Act 154 of the Laws of 1895 'requires that 
when any deed, land contract, plat of any town site, village, or 
addition to any town site, village plat or city, is presented tC' the 
register of deeds for record of filing in his office, he shall require 
to be furnished at the same time a certificate from the county 
treasurer that there ARE NO TAXES unpaid on the land cov- 
ered by the plat and no Tax Liens against it. 

You will see that such tax certificate, in the county treasurer's 
usual form for deeds and other instruments, is stamped, or in- 
scribed upon the ORIGINAL plat before copies are made thereof 
and before forwarding to the Auditor General. 



SUGGESTIONS TO BE CLOSELY OBSERVED. 

1. The term "as proprietor" or "proprietors" should appear 
after the name, or names of the owners, in the dedication. 

2. Do not use rubber stamp for signatures. 

3. All names in the body of dedication, acknowledgment and 
certificates should agree to the letter with signatures, as appended. 
A full name should not be used in one place and an abbreviation 
or initial substituted for it in another. 

4. If the plat is made by a corporation, the corporate name 
should be used, followed by the names of its president and sec- 
retary and have impressed the seal of the corporation ; if by an as- 
sociation, then president and secretary should sign with scroll 
seals after their signatures. 

5. Building restrictions, franchise rights, and the like, have 
no place in the dedication. It is held that no "reversions" can be 
reserved in streets and other parcels dedicated to the public, even 
though an attempt is made to do so in the dedication. 

6. It is desirable that the trustee should state his authority ; 
similarly for an attorney-in-fact. 



156 TOWN, CITY AND VIIvLAGE PLATS 

7. The caption should agree exactly with the title as printed 
in certificates. Correct spelling is very desirable in caption and 
title. 

8. The law requires that in the drawing and in writing there 
shall be provided two separate, complete and independent descrip- 
tions of the land platted, which must be consistent with each other. 
This means that many items must be repeated, and of course it re- 
quires exact agreement in all cases where two recorded items sig- 
nify the same thing. If the boundaries are described by bearings 
and distances, the "place of beginning" must be noted on the 
drawing and the bearings and distances noted on the drawing must 
agree exactly with those given in the written description. 

9. The numbering of lots and blocks in every plat must be 
regular and continuous commencing with lot i, block i, dividing 
into blocks may be omitted (but not preferable). 

10. Distinguish old survey lines, old lot and block numbers, 
preferably in ink of some other color than black. 

11. Numerical dimensions should agree fairly well with 
scaled values. The length recorded on any boundary line should 
agree exacly with the aggregate of lot and street dimensions along 
that line. 

12. The boundary of the platted portion should be repre- 
sented by a continuous line, dotted if desired where it crosses 
streets. 

13. Curved boundaries should be adequately surveyed and 
their curve elements recorded on the drawing. 

14. A lot cannot be divided by road or another lot. 

15. Fully describe all "excepted" parcels. 

16. All alleys, public walks and the like should be plainly 
designated as such. 

17. The law requires that the plat be made by a competent 
person. This implies a workmanlike execution of the plat in 
every detail. Freehand linear drawing should not be attempted, 
nor should other principles of good surveying and draftsmanship 
be offended. 

18. No plat will be examined at this Department that does 
not contain all certificates required by the statute. 

19. No plat should be forwarded to this department for ex- 



TOWN, CITY AND VILLAGE PLATS 1 57 

amination without the name and address of proprietor or survey- 
or accompanying the same. 

20. No plat will be examined or considered until statutory 
fee of $4.00 is received. 

21. The examination of a plat by the Auditor General's De- 
partment does not presume to discover all mathematical errors, nor 
even to provide suggestions for remodeling the descriptive matter. 
All who submit plats should, at least, carefully review them when 
returned for correction. Sometimes errors are carelessly intro- 
duced in the very act of correction. If a similar error appears a 
number of times on the same plat only one mention may be made 
of its occurrence; but the sender of the plat should make sure 
that the correction is made wherever necessary. 

22. Following the law are resolutions adopted by the Mich- 
igan Engineering Society at their annual meeting held at Ann 
Arbor in Januar}^, 1886, which are worthy of attention as ex- 
pressing the views of the association composed of the most intelli- 
gent and competent surveyors of the State. 

23. No plat can be approved that includes a replat of a part 
or of the whole of a former plat and land not previously platted. 
In such cases, the previous plat or that portion included in the new 
plat must first be vacated. 



SECTION 3372 AS AMENDED BY ACT 114 OF THE PUB- 
LIC ACTS OF 1909, AND SECTIONS 3373-3957, COM- 
PILED LAWS OF 1897. 

Section i. Whenever any town, township or subdivision 
thereof, city, village or addition thereto shall be laid out or shall 
be altered or vacated as hereinafter provided, within this State, 
the proprietor or proprietors thereof shall cause a survey and a 
true map or plat thereof to be made by a civil engineer, surveyor 
or other competent person. Such map or plat shall in every case 
be made on a scale showing not more than twO' hundred feet to 
an inch, on sheets of good muslin-backed paper, eighteen inches 
by twenty-four inches in size, and more than one plat shall not 
be made on one sheet. There shall be written or printed upon the 



158 TOWN, CITY AND VILLAGE; PLATS 

paper on which said map or plat shall be made a full and detailed 
description of the land embraced in said map or plat, showing the 
township and range in which such land is situated and the sec- 
tions and parts of sections platted, and containing the name of the 
town, city, village or addition platted, the name or names of the 
proprietor or proprietors thereof, and of the engineer, surveyor or 
person making said map or plat, with the date. The same shall 
be signed by such proprietor or proprietors and their wives, and 
engineer, surveyor or person making the same, and shall be wit- 
nessed and acknowledged by the owners, as deeds conveying 
lands are required to be witnessed and acknowledged. The sec- 
tions and parts of sections platted shall also be designated by lines 
drawn upon such map or plat, with appropriate letters and figures, 
and in case of a subdivision of lots or blocks of a previous survey, 
the outlines of the original or previous lots or blocks so subdivided 
shall be designated by lines drawn upon said map or plat, and shall 
be marked with appropriate letters and figures. There shall also 
be on such map or plat a plain designation of the cardinal points 
and a correct scale. Before such map or plat shall be approved 
by the Auditor General and before such map or plat shall be 
recorded by the register of deeds, the proprietor or proprietors 
thereof shall cause to be attached to said map or plat a certificate 
from the county treasurer whether there are any tax liens or titles 
held by the State or by any individual against such piece or de- 
scription of land described in such map or plat, and whether 
all taxes due thereon have been paid for the five years preceding 
the date of such certificate, and in the absence of such certificate 
the Auditor General shall not approve said map or plat until 
such certificate is secured and presented ; and before such map or 
plat shall be approved by the Auditor General, and before such 
map or plat shall be recorded by the register of deeds, the pro- 
prietor or proprietors thereof shall cause to be attached to said 
map or plat a certificate of approval from the township board, or 
the city council, or the village council having jurisdiction over the 
lands so described in the said map or plat. For the purpose of 
such approval by the Auditor General and recording with the 
register of deeds, the proprietor or proprietors shall cause to be 
made by a civil engineer, surveyor or other competent person, on 



TOWX, CITV AXD \-ILI,AGE PLATS I59 

the same scale and on paper of the same size and quaHty as that 
on which the map or plat is required to be made, an exact copy of 
said map or plat with detailed description or descriptions, 
signatures, witnesses, acknowledgment and certificate of 
county treasiu^er; and it shall be the duty of the proprietor 
or proprietors to cause said map or plat to be forwarded to 
the Auditor General for his approval, together with said 
copy thereof, and to deposit with the Auditor General a fee 
of four dollars for approving, filing and recording said map 
or plat. It shall be the duty of the Auditor General of 
the State to approve said map or plat when same shall conform 
in his opinion to the requirements of this act, and pay over three 
dollars of said sum to the State Treasurer to be credited to the 
general fund and to forward the remaining sum of one dollar to 
the register of deeds as the registration fee as hereinafter pro- 
vided. In case such map or plat is approved by the Auditor 
General of the State, he shall immediately forward said map or 
plat, approved, with certificate and date of approval inscribed 
thereon to the register of deeds in the proper county, and shall 
pay over to said register of deeds the one dollar fee herein pro- 
vided for at such time when said register of deeds shall have fur- 
nished the Auditor General of the State a proper certificate of 
recording said map or plat. In case said map or plat is not ap- 
proved by the Auditor General the sum of one dollar herein speci- 
fied as registration fee shall be returned to the proprietor or pro- 
prietors of said map or plat ; but in no case shall the three dol- 
lars which has been turned into the State treasury and credited 
to the general fund be returned. If for any reason the Auditor 
General of the State does not approve the said map or plat, he 
shall notify the proprietor or proprietors and give his reason 
therefore. It shall be the duty of the Auditor General of the State 
to compare the copy of said map or plat with the map or plat, and 
transcribe on said copy a certificate of the recording of said map 
or plat forwarded by the register of deeds in the county where 
said map or plat is recorded, and inscribe on said copy of said 
map or plat a certificate of the Auditor General of the State. 
giving the date of filing of said copy and that the same is a true 
copy of the said map or plat forwarded to the register of deeds 



j6o town, city and vii^lage; plats 

for recording: Provided, That in case the said proprietor or pro- 
prietors of said map or plat desire to "retain a copy of said map or 
plat, the said proprietor or proprietors shall forward a second 
exact copy of said map or plat upon paper of the same kind and 
quality or upon tracing linen, and otherwise in all respects as 
heretofore provided for the forwarding of the first copy of said 
map or plat, to the Auditor General who shall return the same to 
said proprietor or proprietors without additional cost, with a cer- 
tificate inscribed thereon that the said copy is a true and exact 
copy of the said map or plat forwarded to the register of deeds 
for record, and that there is also a true copy of said map or plat 
on file in the office of the Auditor General of the State as pro- 
vided by this act: Provided further, That all plats hereafter 
made in this State including plats of land owned or controlled by 
summer resort associations, and all other plats made by any other 
person, association or corporation shall be approved, filed and 
recorded in the manner provided in this section. The Auditor 
General shall keep an index in which he shall enter alphabetically 
the name of every town, city, village and addition, a copy of 
record of the map or plat of which shall be filed in his office, the 
date of filing the same, and whatever else he may think necessary 
to facilitate reference thereto. The said register, upon receipt of 
said map or plat from the Auditor General of the State, shall 
fasten the said map or plat in a book of the proper size for such 
paper so that it shall not.be folded, which book shall be strongly 
bound in leather and provided at the expense of the said county, 
and such copy so fastened in said book shall be held and taken 
to be a record of the said map or plat, with like efl^ect as if the 
said map or plat had been actually transcribed by said register 
in a book in his office, and for any wilful violation of this pro- 
vision by a register of deeds he shall be liable to a penalty of ten 
dollars, and shall also be liable to pay all damages which any per- 
son may sustain by reason thereof, to be recovered in an action of 
trespass on the case. The register shall certify on such map or 
plat the time when it was recorded as aforesaid with a reference 
to the book or page where recorded. He shall note on the record 
the time when made, and shall keep a separate index of maps or 
plats, in which he shall enter alphabetically the name of every 



TOWN, CITY AND VILLAGE PLATS l6l 

town, city, village or addition, the map or plat of which shall he 
recorded by him, with a reference to the book and page where 
the same shall be recorded. The register of deeds, after record- 
ing said map or plat as herein provided, and before he shall be 
entitled to the one dollar registration fee to be forwarded by the 
Auditor General of the State as herein provided, shall cause to be 
furnished the Auditor General of the State a proper certificate of 
the recording of said map or plat upon such blank form which may 
be forwarded by the Auditor General of the State. The map or 
plat, with the certificate of record endorsed thereon, the record 
thereof made as aforesaid, or a properly certified transcript of 
such record, shall be received in all courts in this State as prima 
facia evidence of the making and recording of such map or plat 
in conformity with the provisions of this act, and the copy of such 
recorded map or plat filed or in the Auditor General's office, or a 
properly certified transcript thereof, shall be received in all 
courts of the State as prima facia evidence of the above matters, 
and also the filing of said copy in the Auditor General's ofiice. If 
any person or persons shall sell and convey any lot or lots within 
any such town, city, village or addition, by reference to such plat 
before the map or plat thereof shall be recorded and the copy 
of the record thereof filed as aforesaid, he or they shall forfeit 
and pay the sum of ten dollars for each lot so sold. For all ser- 
vices by this act required to be performed by a register of deeds 
in respect to any such map or plat brought into his office for rec- 
ord, the said register shall be entitled to receive the sum of one 
dollar, which shall be paid as herein provided : Provided. That in 
all cases where the proprietor or proprietors of any piece or 
pieces of land shall have caused the same to be laid out and platted 
as a city, town or village, or as an addition to a city, town or 
village or where the proprietors have caused such city, town or 
village lots to be deeded by metes and bounds and courses and 
have failed or neglected to have a plat thereof made and recorded 
as provided by this act, the supervisor or assessor of the town- 
ship, city or village in which such land is situated shall, when 
authorized by the township board of such township or by the com- 
mon council or the board of trustees of such city or village, cause 
a map or plat of said city, town village or addition to be made 



l62 TOWN, CITY AND VILLAGE; PLATS 

under his hand and seal, properly acknowledged by him and in 
every way following the provisions of this act, except as to the 
certificate of the county treasurer relating to tax titles and tax 
liens as provided by this act, and showing by reference to this act 
the authority for the same. Such plat or map, when recorded 
and filed as herein provided by this act, shall be treated in respect 
to the assessment, collection and return of taxes and the sale of 
said lands for delinquent taxes, as if the same had been made by 
the proprietor or proprietors : Provided, That such proceedings 
shall not interfere with vested rights : Provided further, That the 
expense of making said plat or map, when done by the supervisor 
or assessor according to the provisions of this act, shall be paid 
by the township, city or village in which such plat is located. 

Section 3373. That such maps or plats as are by this act 
required to be recorded shall particularly set forth and describe 
such portion of the government survey as is intended to be 
platted, and when said premises are not included in the legal sub- 
divisions of the government surveys then the boundaries to be 
defined by metes and bounds and courses. Said maps or plats 
shall also particularly set forth and describe all the public grounds, 
except for streets and alleys by their boundaries courses, and 
extent and all streets and alleys by their courses, lengths, widths, 
names or numbers, by writing or figures upon that portion of the 
map or plat intended for those uses. And all the lots intended for 
sale may be numbered, either by progressive numbers, or, if in 
blocks, progressively numbered in each block, and the blocks 
progressively numbered or lettered. Where all the lots of any 
block are of the same dimensions it shall be sufficient to mark the 
precise length and width upon one tier thereof; but all gores, 
triangles, or other lots which are not either squares or parallel- 
ograms, shall have the length of their sides plainly defined by 
figures. 

Permanent monuments shall be located in the ground at all 
angles in the boundaries of the land platted, and at all the in- 
tersections of streets, or streets and alleys, as shown on the map 
or plat, and when there are permenent objects in the vicinity of 
such monuments the bearings and distances of such objects shall 
be noted. The character of the monuments and the bearings and 



TOWN, CITY AND VII.LAGE; PLATS 163 

distances of such witness points or objects shall be distinctly 
given in the most convenient manner on the plat. The surveyor 
or engineer making such plat shall certify that the plat is a correct 
one, and that the monuments described in it have been planted as 
therein described. The map so made and recorded in compliance 
with the provisions of this act shall be deemed a sufficient con- 
veyance to vest the fee of such parcels of land as may be herein 
designated for public uses in the city or village within the incor- 
porate limits of which the land platted is included, or if not in- 
cluded within the limits of any incorporated city or village, then 
in the townsliip within the limits of which it is included in trust 
to and for the uses and purposes therein designated, and for no 
other use or purpose whatever. 

Section 3957. When any deed, land contract, plat of any 
town site, village, or addition to any town site, village plat or 
city, or any other instrument for the conveyance of title to any 
real estate, is presented to the register of deeds of any county 
in this State for record or filing in his office, he shall require 
from the person presenting the same a certificate from the Audi- 
tor General, or from the county treasurer of the county, whether 
there are any tax liens or titles held by the State, or by any indi- 
vidual, against such piece or description of land sought to be con- 
veyed by such instrument, and that all taxes due thereon have 
been paid for the five years preceding to the date of such instru- 
ment, and in default of the presentation of such certificate he 
shall not record the same until such certificate is secured and 
presented. The register of deeds shall note the fact upon said 
deed that said certificate has or has not been presented to him 
when such instrument is presented for record, and in case the 
person presenting such instrument shall refuse to procure such 
certificate, he shall endorse that fact upon said intsrument, over 
his official signature, and shall refuse to receive and record the 
same: Provided, That the provisions of this section shall not 
apply to the filing of any town or village plat for the purpose of 
incorporation, in so far as the land embraced therein is included 
in a plat already filed in the office of the register of deeds, or in 
so far as the description of lands therein is not changed by such 
plat, nor to the filing of any copy of the town, village or city 



164 TOWN, CITY AND VILI^AGE PLATS 

plat in case the original plat tiled in the office of such register of 
deeds has been lost or destroyed, nor to any sheriff's or commis- 
sioner's deed executed for the sale of lands under any proceed- 
ing in law, or by virtue of any decree of any of the courts of this 
State, nor to any deed of trust by any assignee, executor or cor- 
poration executed pursuant to any law of this State; nor to any 
quit claim deed or other conveyance containing no covenants of- 
warranty ; nor to any land patent executed by the President of 
the United States, or the Governor of this State, nor to any tax 
deed made by the Auditor General ; nor to any deed executed by 
any railroad company conveying its right of way, provided such 
deed is accompanied by a certificate of the Auditor General show- 
ing that all specific taxes due from said railroad company have 
been paid, to and including the year in which such deed is exe- 
cuted. A violation of the provisions of this section by any 
register of deeds shall be deemed a misdemeanor, and upon con- 
viction thereof he shall be fined not to exceed one hundred dollars, 
and he shall further be liable to the grantee of any instrument so 
recorded for the amount of damages sustained, to be recovered 
in an action for debt in any court of this State. 



RESOLUTIONS OF THE MICHIGAN ENGINEERING 

SOCIETY. 

Recommending the following points in connection with and 
supplementary to the instructions contained in the circular from 
the Auditor General's office of May 29, 1885 : 

First, That the written description of the land platted should 
be clear and distinct, describing it in as brief a manner as is con- 
sistent with accuracy, so that there shall be no misunderstanding 
as to what land the plat is intended to cover ; that the outlines of 
the plat itself shall be marked with appropriate letters and figures 
corresponding with the written description indicating the courses 
and length of those lines ; that if any lots lying within the outlines 
of the plat are not intended to be considered a part of the plat 
they should not be numbered or lettered, and the fact that they 



TOWN, CITY AND VII^IvAGE PLATS 1 65 

are excepted be noted in the written description. The courses 
and length of the hnes of such lots should be marked on the plat 
by appropriate letters and figures, and the lots themselves marked 
on the plat as accepted. 

Second, Use a short and simple form of acknowledg- 
ment. * * * 

Third, Use but one unit of measurement in the plat. Make 
a diagram on the plat of the scale used, with appropriate letters 
to show what the scale is. 

Fourth, The four cardinal points be indicated in a simple 
manner by an arrow or flciir dc Us, with appropriate letters. 
This we understand to be intended merely to indicate in a gen- 
eral way the points of compass on the map. Whenever practi- 
cable, give the courses in the written description and on the 
plat from the true meridian, and also, when practicable, that the 
angle of intersecting lines be given on the plat. 
Fifth, That it should be remembered that Sec. 3373 is to be con- 
sidered in connection with the fifth clause of Sec. 3374. 

Sixth, That we esteem it of the first importance that per- 
manent monuments be located in the ground at all important 
points in the plats, and the character and location of such monu- 
ments, by their bearing trees or points, be distinctly given on the 
plat. 



REFERENCES. 



Gillespie's Surveying, 185 1 to date. Revised by Cady Staley 
1887. 
Published by D. Appleton & Co. New York. N. Y. 

Surveying. Daniel Carhart, C.E. Western University of Penn^ 
sylvania. 1887. 

Published by Ginn & Co. Boston, Mass. 

Theory and Practice of Surveying. J. B. Johnson, C.E. Wash- 
ington University, St. Louis, Mo. 1886 to date. Chap- 
ter on Geodesy. 
PubHshed by John Wiley & Sons. New York, N. Y. 

Plane Surveying. Wm. G. Raymond, C.E. 1896. 
Published by American Book Co. 

Field Engineering. Wm. H. Searles, C.E. Railroads. Pocket' 
book. Excellent tables. 
Pubhshed by John Wiley & Sons. New York, N. Y. 

Topographic Surveying. Herbert M. Wilson, C.E. 1900 to date. 
Part V, Geodesy. Chapter XEI, Camera Surveying. 
Published by John Wiley & Sons. New York, N. Y. 

Plane Surveying. P. C. Nugent, C.E. Syracuse University, 1902. 
Published by John Wiley & Sons. New York, N. Y. 

Surveying. Breed & Hosmer. 1907. 

Published by John Wiley & Sons. New York, N. Y. 

Advanced Surveying. Breed & Hosmer. 1908. 

Published by John Wiley & Sons. New York, N. Y. 

Plane Surveying. J. C. Tracy, C.E. 1908. Pocket Manual. 
Published by John Wiley & Sons. New York, N. Y. 



REFERENCES. 1 67 

Manual of Land Surveying. F. Hodgman. Pocket book. Legal 
subjects. 
Published by the author. Climax, Mich. 

Manual of U. S. Land Survey. Instructions for original surveys. 
Published by General Land Office, Washington, D. C. 

Photographic Surveying. E. Deville, Surveyor General of Can- 
ada, 1889 to date. 
To be obtained of the Superintendent of Stationery, Depart- 
ment of Public Printing and Stationery, Ottawa, Canada. 

Photographic Instruments and Methods. J. A. Flemer. 1906. 
Published by John Wiley & Sons. New York, N. Y. 

Law of Operations Preliminary to Construction. John Cassan 
Wait. Very useful to surveyors and engineers. 
Published by John Wiley & Sons. New York, N. Y. 



DO ANY OF THESE THINGS FIT YOU? 

Stop! 

Going out to work without a note book and pencil. 

Stop ! 

Going out to work without ah the information to be had. 

Stop! 

Taking instruments out to work without first knowing their 
condition. 

Stop! 

Taking instruments out to work without all necessary acces- 
sories, — as tripod, plumb bob, reading glass, shade, or 
adjusting pin. 

Stop! 

Sighting at the top of a line staff, or station pole. 

Stop ! 

Plumbing up with a line staff. Use a plumb bob and line. 

Stop ! 

Using splinters, and twigs, to mark stations with. Use stakes. 
or plugs. 

Stop! 

Using stakes for plugs. Use plugs, four inches, or more, 
across, driven flush with the ground. 

Stop! 

Pulling up plugs till through with them. 



DO ANY OF THESE THINGS FIT YOU? 169 

Stop! 

Leaving any stakes, plugs, or other marks, temporarily in 
use while making a survey, to be mistaken for the real 
marks the survey \vas made to obtain, or perpetuate. 
Knock out everv thing else, — but not till done with them. 



Stop! 

Removing land marks, to plant others, -except in the presence 
of witnesses, and with a complete record of ever}^ one 
present, and every thing found, done, and planted. 

Stop! 

Being so particular to read the leveling rod to thousandths 
where it is not needed, while misreading the tenths and 
feet. The thousandths do not really amount to so very 
much when the feet, or tenths, or both, are read wrong. 

Stop! 

Alaking hasty jots and calling it a record. Alake a record to 
be read, understood, and not mistaken, by a stranger. 
Do it when the work recorded is done, — not leave it to 

be guessed at afterwards. 

Stop! 

Making scattered, confused, or mixed up notes. Use a form, 
or write in full. 

Stop! 

Using an instrument the instant any of its parts work hard. 
Find out what the matter is and fix it, or have it fixed. 

Stop ! 

Leaving things around on the work, and forgetting them. 
This delays not only the careless person who forgets, but 
others, — perhaps stopping the whole work. 



jyo DO ANY 01^ THESU THINGS I'lT YOU? 

Stop ! 

Leaving things around at all, — to be picked up afterwards. 

Stop! 

Putting things away in any kind of disorder. 

Stop! 

Putting instruments, or tools, of any kind, away, unfit for 
immediate use. 



Stop! 

Depending on others to make good any careless practices. 
Strive to do things as well as they can be done. 

Stop! 

Doing things "Good enough." Do them so no man can bet- 
ter them. 



Stop! 

Trying to work without judgment, — endeavoring to mechan- 
ically follow a process. Strive to become able to make 
such things as processes. Processes, methods, learning, 
attainments, are properly tools, or servants, — not mas- 
ters. 

Stop! 

Being satisfied with the attainments acquired in any direction. 
What has been accomplished is but a step stone to some- 
thing more, or better. 



f 



EXAMINATIONS. 



Outfit. 

To write with ink. 

Triangles. 

Scale. 

Pencil dividers. 

Pencil eraser. 

Pencil, — No. 3. 
Write all of the subjects for examination, with their num- 
bers, on the first leaf of the blue book. 

Write with ink. Write plain, — or print. 

Use well drawn diagrams. 

No reports of examinations given out. 



CONDITIONED STUDENTS. 



To continue their work until able to write correctly on all 
•of the subjects in the following list: 
Measuring with steel tapes. 
Reading an angle. 
Intersections and corrections. 
Passing obstructions. 
Circular curves. 
Traversing. 

Setting up a transit and a level. 
Peg levels. 
Verniers. 

Least reading. 

Reading a vernier. 
Profile leveling. 
Running a straight line. 
Adjusting instruments. 
Town, city, and village plats. 



nm 3 ^8^^ 



1 



